39.2: Theories Related to Growth and Development

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Explain Freud’s theory in relation to growth and development
• Explain Erikson’s theory in relation to growth and development
• Explain Havighurst’s theory in relation to growth and development

Childhood development is both predictable and unique, meaning children progress through specific stages but also demonstrate unique psychosocial and personality characteristics throughout their childhood. The development theories help us understand how children develop and learn, and if their behavior and cognition fall within the normal range for children their age. There are three specific theories that are often discussed in pediatric development: Freud’s theory, Erikson’s theory, and Havighurst’s theory.

Freud’s Theory

Freud described personality development through psychosexual stages. The stages are oral, anal, phallic, latent, and genital. According to Freud, sexual is a general term that refers to any pleasurable action, behavior, or thought. Based on children’s age, they progress through stages in which a specific part of their body experiences pleasure and tension. In each stage of development, there is a conflict between frustrated wishes and social norms. Ideally, children resolve each conflict and move on to the subsequent stage. Some children may linger in a stage because their needs are under met or over met. For example, according to Freud, both children who are underfed and overfed as infants may develop personality deficits (Lantz, 2022).

Another important aspect of Freud’s theory of personality development is the idea that personality is multidimensional. According to Freud, there are three parts of the human personality: the id, ego, and superego. The id represents our instincts and our impulses. The ego focuses on our reality. The superego focuses on morality. The three parts of the human psyche interact with each other to define our personality. These three elements of the human psyche develop in childhood throughout the stages of development (Table 39.2).

Stage	Age	Focus	Id, Ego, or Superego
I—Oral	0 to 1 year old	Gratification comes from the mouth, including biting and sucking activities.	Id is present at birth. Ego starts to develop.
II—Anal	1 to 3 years old	Anus is the primary interest. Toilet training is a primary developmental task.	Ego is the primary facet of this stage of personality development.
III—Phallic	3 to 6 years old	Genitals are the area of focus. Masturbation is common. Many children bond with the opposite-sex parent. This is referred to as the Oedipus complex.	Superego starts to develop.
IV—Latency	6 to 12 years old	Resolution of oedipal complex. Sexual drive channeled into socially appropriate behavior like schoolwork and playing sports.	Id is repressed as children want to conform to societal norms. Superego matures.
V—Genital	13 to 18 years old	Puberty and the capacity of true intimacy are the hallmarks of this stage.	Superego is fully formed; the three elements of the human psyche interact with each other.

Table 39.2 Freud’s Development Stages (Source: Lantz & Ray, 2022.)

Erikson’s Theory

Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development is based on eight stages of development through which an individual passes from infancy to late adulthood (Table 39.3). In each stage, the individual should conquer a developmental milestone through resolution of a basic conflict. The theory is sequential, meaning the skills or psychosocial attributes obtained in earlier stages are needed for successful completion of later stages. Therefore, if the person does not master the milestone in each stage, it could result in repercussions later in life and/or an unhealthy personality (Orenstein, 2022).

Basic Conflict	Age Range	Important Skill	Outcome
Trust versus mistrust	Infancy 0 to 1.5 years	Feeding	Infants develop a sense of trust if caregivers respond to their needs. If not, they develop mistrust.
Autonomy versus shame and doubt	Toddler 1.5 to 3 years	Toilet training	Toddlers are egocentric and need to develop independence from their caregiver. Successful completion of this stage leads to a sense of autonomy, while failure leads to shame and doubt.
Initiative versus guilt	Preschool 3 to 5 years	Exploration	Children begin to assert control of their environment. Success in this stage is a sense of purpose and initiative to try new things. Children who experience excessive disapproval develop a sense of guilt.
Industry versus inferiority	School age 5 to 12 years	Social awareness	School-age children need to master the demands of school and friendships. Success leads to a sense of competence, while failure leads to feelings of inferiority.
Identity versus role confusion	Adolescent 12 to 18 years	Peer relationships	Teens need to develop their own identity that is unique from their family of origin. Successful completion of this stage leads to strong personal identity, while failure results in confusion and a weak sense of self.
Intimacy versus isolation	Young adult 18 to 40 years	Intimate relationships	Young adults need to build loving, reciprocal relationships. Success leads to strong relationships with friends and a partner or partners, while failure leads to isolation and loneliness.
Generativity versus stagnation	Adult 40 to 65 years	Professional life and parenthood	Middle-aged adults need to create something that will outlast them. This could be raising children or creating positive change. Success leads to a sense of accomplishment, while failure leads to withdrawal from society.
Ego integrity versus despair	Older adult 65 years+	Reflection on life	Older adults will look back at their life and have either a sense of fulfillment or a sense of regret and bitterness.

Table 39.3 Erikson’s Stages of Development

Link to Learning

More information on Freud’s and Erickson’s theories and their similarities and differences are presented in this video.

Havighurst’s Theory

Havighurst’s theory of human development is based on the premise that individuals pass through a series of developmental stages from infancy through adulthood. In each stage, there are specific developmental tasks that must be completed (Table 39.4). A developmental task is a challenge the individual wants to solve that arises predictably at a certain period in life. Successful completion of these tasks leads to a person’s happiness and increases the probability of completion of later tasks. Failure to complete tasks leads to societal disapproval and unhappiness (Jugert & Titzmann, 2020).

Stage	Age Range	Tasks to Be Completed
Infancy and early childhood	0 to 6 years old	Learn to walk Learn to talk Toilet train Learn the foundation of reading
Later childhood	6 to 13 years old	Acquire the skills necessary to play games Learn to play with other children of the same age Achieve personal independence Recognize what society deems as masculine or feminine social roles
Adolescence	13 to 18 years old	Accept physical changes of puberty Prepare for having intimate relationships and starting a family Plan for an economically viable career Develop a personal ideology and a set of ethical values to guide behavior
Early adulthood	18 to 30 years old	Find a partner Establish either a masculine or feminine role Start a family Take on civic responsibilities
Middle age	30 to 60 years old	Achieve adult civic and social responsibilities Assist adolescent children to become responsible adults Develop adult hobbies or leisure activities Accept physiological changes of aging
Later maturity	60 years and older	Adjust to decrease in strength and loss of physical health Adapt to retirement Meet social and civic obligations

Table 39.4 Havighurst’s Developmental Stages and Tasks

Havighurst recognized that humans do not develop in a vacuum and outlined specific factors that may affect an individual’s development. These factors are societal influences, personal values, and physical maturation. By recognizing that development is affected by both environmental factors and personal characteristics, Havighurst’s theory is applicable to a wider population base than other theories (Jurgert & Titzmann, 2020).