4: Epidemiology- The Study of Disease, Injury and Death in the Community
- Page ID
- 116191
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\(\newcommand{\avec}{\mathbf a}\) \(\newcommand{\bvec}{\mathbf b}\) \(\newcommand{\cvec}{\mathbf c}\) \(\newcommand{\dvec}{\mathbf d}\) \(\newcommand{\dtil}{\widetilde{\mathbf d}}\) \(\newcommand{\evec}{\mathbf e}\) \(\newcommand{\fvec}{\mathbf f}\) \(\newcommand{\nvec}{\mathbf n}\) \(\newcommand{\pvec}{\mathbf p}\) \(\newcommand{\qvec}{\mathbf q}\) \(\newcommand{\svec}{\mathbf s}\) \(\newcommand{\tvec}{\mathbf t}\) \(\newcommand{\uvec}{\mathbf u}\) \(\newcommand{\vvec}{\mathbf v}\) \(\newcommand{\wvec}{\mathbf w}\) \(\newcommand{\xvec}{\mathbf x}\) \(\newcommand{\yvec}{\mathbf y}\) \(\newcommand{\zvec}{\mathbf z}\) \(\newcommand{\rvec}{\mathbf r}\) \(\newcommand{\mvec}{\mathbf m}\) \(\newcommand{\zerovec}{\mathbf 0}\) \(\newcommand{\onevec}{\mathbf 1}\) \(\newcommand{\real}{\mathbb R}\) \(\newcommand{\twovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\ctwovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\threevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cthreevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\mattwo}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{rr}#1 \amp #2 \\ #3 \amp #4 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\laspan}[1]{\text{Span}\{#1\}}\) \(\newcommand{\bcal}{\cal B}\) \(\newcommand{\ccal}{\cal C}\) \(\newcommand{\scal}{\cal S}\) \(\newcommand{\wcal}{\cal W}\) \(\newcommand{\ecal}{\cal E}\) \(\newcommand{\coords}[2]{\left\{#1\right\}_{#2}}\) \(\newcommand{\gray}[1]{\color{gray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\lgray}[1]{\color{lightgray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\rank}{\operatorname{rank}}\) \(\newcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\col}{\text{Col}}\) \(\renewcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\nul}{\text{Nul}}\) \(\newcommand{\var}{\text{Var}}\) \(\newcommand{\corr}{\text{corr}}\) \(\newcommand{\len}[1]{\left|#1\right|}\) \(\newcommand{\bbar}{\overline{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bhat}{\widehat{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bperp}{\bvec^\perp}\) \(\newcommand{\xhat}{\widehat{\xvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\vhat}{\widehat{\vvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\uhat}{\widehat{\uvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\what}{\widehat{\wvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\Sighat}{\widehat{\Sigma}}\) \(\newcommand{\lt}{<}\) \(\newcommand{\gt}{>}\) \(\newcommand{\amp}{&}\) \(\definecolor{fillinmathshade}{gray}{0.9}\)This week we start our exploration of epidemiology, the core science of public health. We focus here on unpacking the types of numbers and studies that we use in public health to monitor the health of populations. I imagine that many of you have never taken a statistics course and this course certainly is NOT one. Yet, I hope that by understanding what kinds of numbers epidemiologists work with, you will be better equipped to critically assess health information and to understand public health responses to epidemics. We also look at how to find reliable health information on the internet or through a library.
- 4.1: Learning outcomes
- This page provides an overview of a module aimed at equipping students with essential epidemiological knowledge. Key learning objectives include defining epidemiological terms, understanding rates like incidence and prevalence, and recognizing important concepts related to communicable diseases and life expectancy.
- 4.2: Epidemiology and Public Health
- This page emphasizes public health's role in enhancing population health by preventing diseases, supported by epidemiology, which studies disease causes and distributions. It highlights the interdisciplinary nature of public health, incorporates various fields, and outlines Chapter 3 of ICPH, covering epidemiology's definition, history, disease occurrence rates, reporting processes, health indicators, and types of studies.
- 4.4: Public Health Responses to Epidemics
- This page outlines the emergence of epidemiology to tackle disease outbreaks, highlighted by John Snow's cholera investigation. It defines epidemiology and differentiates between epidemic, endemic, and pandemic events. The text emphasizes the necessity of diverse public health strategies—like isolation and immunization—for effective epidemic responses. Additionally, it compares historical methods to contemporary practices, including their application during the COVID-19 pandemic.
- 4.6: Public Health Statistics
- This page discusses the role of statistics in public health, highlighting how epidemiologists and biostatisticians analyze data on births, deaths, and disease rates to monitor health trends. It acknowledges the evolving nature of scientific knowledge, exemplified by changing insights into Covid-19 transmission. The importance of understanding statistical results, especially margins of error, is emphasized for accurate interpretation of health data.
- 4.9: Cases and Rates
- This page emphasizes the importance of monitoring health by counting disease cases, health behaviors, and community conditions. It distinguishes between counts and rates, noting that morbidity refers to illness rates and mortality to death rates. Understanding these rates enables effective comparisons of health events across populations and time periods.
- 4.10: Morbidity and Mortality
- This page discusses key epidemiological concepts: mortality rate indicates death frequency influenced by health, morbidity is measured by prevalence and incidence of conditions, chronic diseases are commonly assessed by prevalence, and attack rate reflects outbreak impact. Age-adjusted rates enhance comparisons across populations, particularly for health outcomes such as COVID-19 deaths, promoting fairness in assessments.
- 4.11: Tracking the Spread of Covid-19
- This page discusses the metrics used by epidemiologists to track Covid-19, such as R0, CFR, positivity rates, hospitalization rates, and ICU capacity. It notes the CDC's shift from monitoring case rates to hospitalization rates as vaccination rises and variant severity decreases. Although precautions can reduce hospital overload, the page emphasizes the importance of maintaining a focus on overall public health and the potential adverse effects of restrictive measures.
- 4.12: Reporting Births, Deaths, Diagnoses
- This page emphasizes the significance of monitoring health statistics, particularly regarding mortality rates and colon cancer deaths in younger adults. It highlights the role of public health sources and health departments in reporting vital statistics and notifiable diseases to the CDC.
- 4.13: Secondary Data
- This page outlines various secondary data sources for public health professionals seeking statistics beyond vital records. Key resources include the U.S. Census for demographic data, the Statistical Abstract for social and economic statistics, and reports like the Monthly Vital Statistics Report and MMWR for health trends. National health surveys, such as NHIS and NHANES, evaluate illness and disability. Many of these data sources are accessible online.
- 4.14: Epidemiological Studies
- This page discusses the distinctions between descriptive and analytic epidemiological studies in public health. Descriptive studies gather data to understand the characteristics of health phenomena, while analytic studies investigate the relationships between health issues and risk factors.
- 4.16: Causation
- This page distinguishes between correlation and causation regarding disease risk factors. Correlation implies simultaneous occurrence without proving causation, which necessitates robust evidence from various studies. Researcher Hill's criteria for causation include strength, consistency, specificity, temporality, and biological plausibility. Although some correlations may be random, unexpected ones could indicate potential causative relationships for further research.
- 4.18: Risk Factors and Protective Factors
- This page defines "risk factors" in epidemiology as elements associated with an increased likelihood of disease or certain health behaviors, without direct causation. It provides examples like smoking and motorcycle accidents. In contrast, "protective factors" decrease the likelihood of negative health outcomes, such as mentorship reducing school drop-out rates.
- 4.19: Health Information
- This page emphasizes the importance of using reliable sources when researching health topics, as most individuals depend on published rather than primary research. It highlights the CCSF Library's Health Education Research Guide and suggests employing the CRAAP test to evaluate the reliability of information based on Currency, Relevance, Authority, Accuracy, and Purpose, enabling users to make informed decisions in health research.
- 4.22: The Value of Deeper Research
- This page highlights the value of thorough research over shallow internet searches, referencing Ricky Jay's views. It advocates for curiosity in learning, especially in college, and offers guidelines for effective research: utilizing library resources, critically evaluating information, exploring diverse perspectives, and properly citing sources to prevent plagiarism. The overall goal is to deepen understanding and promote informed opinions while making learning enjoyable.