8.3: Sport

Sport is perhaps the most thoroughly researched domain for youth physical activity, particularly in regard to psychological determinants of participation. In adults, there are commonly documented gender disparities in sport participation, with men generally engaging in more sport than women, a trend that likely has its roots in childhood and adolescence (Van Tuyckom et al., 2010). According to the U.S. Report Card on Physical Activity for Children and Youth, roughly 56% of 6- to 12-year-old children report playing an organized sport. This report showed disparities in sport participation with girls and individuals from low-income households participating at lower rates than boys and youth from high-income households. While the income disparities were also documented in Canada’s national report card (ParticipACTION, 2018), the gap between boys and girls is not documented in Canada as it is in the United States. On a global level, participation in organized sport has been correlated with life expectancy, gross national income per capita, and global food security index (Aubert et al., 2018).

There is evidence that participation in youth sport, and specifically prolonged participation in youth sport, is a significant predictor of adult physical activity levels. Telama et al. (2006) examined the relationship between sport participation when participants were 9–18 years old and continued participation 3, 6, and 21 years later (covering years 1980–2001). They found that those who were active in sport in both 1980 and 1983, as well as those who were active in both 1980 and 1986, were significantly more likely to report high levels of physical activity in adulthood when compared to individuals who were not involved in sport at any time point. The type of competition at baseline (sport-club, regionally or nationally competitive) was not a significant predictor for adult activity level and the specific sport the individual participated in during youth was not necessarily indicative of the chosen sport in adulthood. These results suggest that exposure and experience, more than specific activities, help to build activity habits for a lifetime.

Benefits of sport participation include skill acquisition, social interaction and development, mental and physical health benefits, and weight management (Logan et al., 2019). Sport participation contributes to development of motor skills and coordination for movements such as running, throwing, catching, and kicking, and increased strength and speed (Christou et al., 2006; Hardy et al., 2014; Melekoglu, 2015). Sport participation may also help youth develop skills that benefit them academically and in other life areas outside of sport, such as planning and self-monitoring (Jonker et al., 2010), time management (Brettschneider, 1999; Durand-Bush & Salmela, 2002), emotional regulation, teamwork and leadership (Hansen et al., 2003; Holt et al., 2008; Larson et al., 2006). Sport participants have shown higher levels of stress resistance (Brettschneider, 2001), lower levels of depression, and higher confidence levels (Boone & Leadbeater, 2006; Eime et al., 2013). Positive sport experiences help to build self-esteem, which may be particularly important for body image and acceptance among girls who learn a broader definition of what it means to be female (Richman & Shaffer, 2000).

Motivations for participation in youth sport range from skill development, fitness, and status to challenge, release of energy and affiliation (being part of a team; McCullagh et al., 1993). Research has consistently shown that perceived competence is a key factor in a child’s enjoyment of sport and their likelihood of staying involved in organized sport (McCarthy et al., 2008). When youth feel that they have the necessary skills to be successful in a given sport, they are more likely to enjoy playing that sport. There appears to be a changing relationship between effort and ability level as it relates to perceived competence in sport as children grow. Younger children (under 11 years old) general do not differentiate between effort and skill and therefore perceive themselves as competent (and therefore enjoy sport) if they feel that they have tried hard. Older children may be more likely to engage in comparison with their teammates and competitors and therefore require not only effort but playing well in order to view themselves as competent and report continued enjoyment (Scanlan et al., 2005).

Burnout, including from early specialization, and excessive competition may lead to eventual dropout from youth sport participation. Specialization refers to the concept of intense focus on a single sport, typically year-round, and often at the expense of participation in other sports and is associated with high levels of competition, burnout and increased risk for injury (Brenner & AAP Council on Sports Medicine and Fitness, 2016). Youth who start this specialization earlier in life, those with a lower total number of extracurricular activities, and those with lower levels of unstructured play, may be at highest risk for burnout and subsequent drop out from sport (Fraser-Thomas et al., 2008). While individuals who excel at sport at a young age may be seen by others as exceptional achievers, this intense focus and its associated time commitment can foster social isolation and limited social and problem-solving skills (Logan et al., 2019).

8.3.1. Implications for Interventions in Sport

8.3.1.1. Pre-School Children

In early childhood (3 to 5 years), children undergo dramatic changes to body composition and motor skills (Gomez, 2000). These young children have limited fundamental sport and balance skills, difficulty judging the speed of moving objects, and short attention spans (Purcell, 2005). During this period, focus should be placed on developing fundamental skills including running, throwing, catching, and riding a bicycle (Purcell, 2005). According to the Long-Term Athlete Development (LTAD) model, before age 6, the focus is on play and mastering basic movement skills (Balyi et al., 2013). The goals of participation should be to be active, have fun, and to have a positive sport experience through learning and practice of fundamental skills (Gould & Petlichkoff, 1988). Children should be introduced to a variety of activities with the mindset of exploration and experimentation (Purcell, 2005). Adults should reward effort and create a fear-free environment for trying new activities (Weinberg & Gould, 2019). During early years, competition should be avoided (Purcell, 2005).

8.3.1.2. School-Aged Children

During ages 6 to 9, children’s growth slows down as they continue to develop fundamental sport skills and begin developing transitional skills (e.g., throwing or kicking for distance). Children still have short attention spans during this age and have limited rapid decision-making skills (Purcell, 2005). During this stage, the focus should be on acquiring a wide range of skills necessary for multiple sports and early specialization should be avoided as this promotes one-sided physical, technical, and tactical development and increases the likelihood of injury and burnout (Balyi et al., 2013). Increasing perceived competence should be encouraged as those with low perceptions of their abilities to learn and perform successfully are likely to drop out from sport (Balish et al., 2014). Children will be more likely to continue with sport if they feel competent (Weinberg & Gould, 2019). Competition can be introduced at this age, but rules should be flexible with the major emphasis on further developing fundamental skills and beginning development of transitional skills. Age-appropriate activities include soccer, baseball, swimming, running, gymnastics, dancing, martial arts, and tennis.

During ages 10 to 12, transitional skills improve, and many children can master complex motor skills (e.g., layup in basketball; Purcell, 2005). Adults should reward correct technique and provide supportive, instructional feedback when teaching (Weinberg & Gould, 2019). With increased attention spans, children are now ready to learn strategy and more complex playing tactics. Coaches should emphasize continued skill development with increasing emphasis on strategy and playing tactics (Purcell, 2005). Encouraging children to focus on self-referenced standards will help them avoid focusing solely on the outcome of competition (Martens, 2012). Age-appropriate sports include football, basketball, and ice hockey (Purcell, 2005).

8.3.1.3. Adolescents and Teenagers

During ages 13 to 15, growth increases exponentially with gains in muscle mass, muscle strength, and cardiopulmonary endurance, but this age is also marked by a temporary decrease in coordination, balance, and flexibility. Varying onsets of puberty may affect sport performance during these ages. Teenagers have improved attention span and good memory skills allowing them to memorize and strategize with plays and game situations (Purcell, 2005). Concentrating on the process over outcome leads to better development and increased long-term involvement in the sport (Balyi et al., 2013).Athletes continue to grow and develop from 16 to 18, seeing increases in attention span and memory skills. All sports are appropriate at this age, but most self-select into sports that they are good at and enjoy (Purcell, 2005). Around age 16, teenagers have developed the physical, cognitive, social, emotional, and motor skills needed to specialize in a sport if desired (Côte et al., 2009).