8.7: Home Environment- Parental Involvement and Modeling

There are no valid and internationally recognized instruments available to document the role of parents in encouraging and supporting physical activity for their children, despite the known importance of parents as “gatekeepers” (Aubert et al., 2018; National Physical Activity Plan Alliance, 2018). Parents exert a large amount of influence on child behaviors, including physical activity,both in providing or restricting access and as a role model. Parents can provide support for physical activity through many avenues: social and emotional support, financial support, transportation and investing time to play with or watch their child participate in organized sports.

Much of the research on parent influence has focused on parenting type. Traditionally, parenting types have been categorized as Authoritarian, Permissive, or Authoritative (Baumrind, 1966); although a fourth style (Neglectful/Uninvolved) is sometimes added. These styles are determined based on Demandingness and Responsiveness (see Figure 8.1). The authoritarian parent attempts to control their child’s behavior with high levels of restriction and authority and is often viewed as strict or stern. Children of parents who display this type of restriction may be less likely to engage in moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and active transportation (Carver et al., 2010). The permissive parent is acceptant and affirmative toward child desires and actions and consults his/her child about decisions while exerting little overt power. In the context of physical activity, this parent is less likely to insist on direct supervision and is likely to have few rules about where a child can go and what they can do. Authoritative parents attempt to direct their child’s behavior while balancing reason and power to encourage both discipline and child autonomy. This parent is likely to have high expectations, but also clear rules and show high support for their child.

Figure 8.1. Aspects of Parenting Styles

There is some evidence that more active parents have more active children. One of these studies (Brouwer et al., 2018), found a sex-specific relationship with girls’ physical activity more closely associated with that of their mother and boys’ physical activity more closely associated with that of their father. However, a 30-year analysis as part of the Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns study (Kaseva et al., 2017) did not find this gendered response. Other researchers have found stronger ties between parent sedentary behavior and low child physical activity than between parent and child high physical activity levels (Fogelholm et al., 1999), suggesting that modeling of sedentary behaviors and modeling of active behaviors may influence child behaviors differently.

Modeling is not the only way that parents can support physical activity for their children. Youth are more likely to achieve the physical activity guidelines if their parent(s) take the child to places where they can be active, take part in physical activities with their child, and encourage their child to be active outdoors with friends or family members (Pyper et al., 2016). Parental influence is usually stronger for younger children (under 12 years of age) as parents play a stronger role in promoting or inhibiting opportunities for physical activity in younger children. There is also some evidence that youth from lower income families perceive less support in the form of being watched by family or friends, which has been associated with overall physical activity level (Duncan et al., 2005).

8.7.1. Implications for Interventions in Parental Involvement

8.7.1.1. Pre-School Children

Parents are integral at this age level as they provide opportunities and supervision for play, both structured and unstructured. Parents can provide support by exposing their pre-school children to a variety of activities. Young children can also be exposed to parent support by attending sporting events or other physical activity opportunities for older siblings with their families, creating a family-wide culture of physical activity support.

8.7.1.2. School-Aged Children

Parents serve as a major role model for this age group, as children still have little volitional control over aspects such as enrollment in organized sport and transportation to places to be active (Pyper et al., 2016). There is some evidence that interventions for parents should directly target behaviors and planning, rather than increasing positive attitudes towards physical activity. Parents are likely already believers that activity is important for their children but need more tangible information such as resources and approaches to planning (Flynn et al., 2017; Pyper et al., 2016). It is possible to increase the amount of time that families spend being active together by providing education and information about local places to be active and empowering parents to act as physical activity role models (Flynn et al., 2017).

8.7.1.3. Adolescents and Teenagers

Although adolescents exert more autonomy over their own activities than younger children, there is still a degree of influence from parents and other family members (Pyper et al., 2016). Parenting style may come into play in this age group as teenagers begin to explore their limits and strive to make more of their own decisions. Authoritative parenting – demanding yet responsive – will allow youth to explore physical activities to find what they enjoy while still being safe. Older children report lower levels of support from parents and siblings than do younger children – an opportunity to provide intervention; however, as children transition into adolescence, peers often become a stronger source of social support (Duncan et al., 2005).