10.5: Group Dynamics in Physical Activity Settings

It is thought that as humans we have a fundamental need to belong (Baumeister & Leary, 1995). Physical activity settings allow us to satisfy this need to belong by interacting with other people. Much of our physical activity is done with others and many people prefer to be active with others.¹ For example, people may go for a walk or run with a friend, join a fitness class, or lift weights with a group of friends. While some of these settings may seem very much like a group (e.g., walking with a group of friends), others may look a little less like a group (e.g., a drop-in fitness class).

10.5.1. Groupness

Researchers have examined the degree to which these physical activity groups possess the characteristics of a true group (Spink et al., 2010). This is reflected in the concept of groupness, which is the degree that a collection of individuals perceives themselves to be a group (Spink et al., 2010). In structured exercise settings like group fitness classes or running clubs, perceiving that setting to be more like a group has been related to participating more often in that setting (Spink et al., 2010). Perceiving higher levels of groupness within a fitness class has been related to greater reports of enjoyment and effort (Graupensperger et al., 2019). In fitness classes, having higher perceptions of groupness was related to greater satisfaction for the basic needs of relatedness and autonomy² and subsequently was related to more physical activity (Evans et al., 2019). Because groups can address the need to belong and have positive effects on physical activity behavior, it is not surprising that research has focused on group environments, structure, and processes (for review, see Eys et al., 2019). The group environment (e.g., member characteristics), structure of the group (e.g., positions, norms, and roles), and group processes (e.g., group cohesion) all have the potential to influence the experience of people within physical activity groups (Eys et al., 2019).

10.5.2. Cohesion

One of the group processes that has received the most attention in the physical activity setting is cohesion (Eys & Brawley, 2018). Cohesion reflects the “dynamic process that is reflected in the tendency for a group to stick together and remain united” (Carron et al., 1998, p. 213). It is conceptualized with two dimensions. The first dimension relates either to the task such as getting a good workout in, or the social aspect such as enjoying the company of the others you are active with. The second dimension relates to either attraction to the group (i.e., the desire of an individual to be a part of the group) or group integration (i.e., the unity of the group as a whole). The combination of these two dimensions creates four types of cohesion, namely (a) attraction to the group - task, (b) attraction to the group - social, (c) group integration - task and (d) group integration - social.

Cohesion has been examined for decades in the physical activity area with a meta-analysis conducted in 1996 describing a positive effect of task cohesion on exercise adherence (Carron et al., 1996). Cohesion has been described as an important aspect of physical activity groups and it is thought to relate to many positive outcomes including adherence or attendance and satisfaction with the settings (Burke et al., 2014). Not all physical activity groups possess the same level of cohesion.Cohesion is influenced by a variety of factors, including similarity, leadership characteristics, and environmental factors such as group size (Chapter 25; Cotterill & Fransen, 2021; Eys & Brawley, 2018). Most of the research on cohesion in the physical activity domain has focused on structured groups like group exercise classes (Eys & Brawley, 2018). Although one study looked at cohesion in unstructured groups, such as people walking with groups of friends (Spink et al., 2014). In that study, adherence was related to higher levels of task cohesion and lower levels of social cohesion. With cohesion playing an important role in the dynamics of a group, researchers have looked at how to develop cohesion (Eys et al., 2019).

Developing cohesion through team-building is one strategy that has been used to promote physical activity participation (Eys et al., 2019). Some of the earlier work involved fitness class instructors’ team-building with their group exercise classes (Spink & Carron, 1993). Researchers held a workshop for fitness instructors and guided them in creating a list of team-building strategies that they would implement in their own fitness classes. Examples of strategies focused on the group environment (e.g., neon shoelaces, slogans for the class), group structure (e.g., norms such as group goals), and group processes (e.g., partner work; Carron & Spink, 1993). In this early research, classes with team building had higher levels of task cohesion (attraction to the group-task) as well as fewer dropouts than the control classes (Spink & Carron, 1993). This teambuilding approach has been used in a variety of settings including fitness classes, physical activity clubs for youth, and exercise settings with older adults (Eys, et al., 2019). At the center of this team-building approach is having the leader identify strategies that will work in their setting for the following areas (a) group distinctiveness (e.g., developing a group name, t-shirt), (b) individual positions (e.g., spots for different intensities), (c) group norms (e.g., standards for work ethic or achievement), (d) individual sacrifices (e.g., asking individuals to help others), and (e) interaction and communication (e.g., incorporating partner work; Burke et al., 2014).

10.5.3. Social Identity and Self-Categorization Theory

Social identity is another factor related to the group that has the potential to influence an individual’s behavior (Stevens et al., 2019). Social identity describes the identity that is formed when an individual derives part of who they are as a person (e.g., their self-concept) from being part of a specific social group (Tajfel, 1981). For example, someone may identify that being a member of a running club is part of who they are. They may describe themselves as part of a weight-lifting club and that identity is central part of who they are as a person. This concept of social identity has been receiving increasing attention in physical activity settings with it being investigated in organized running groups (Stevens et al., 2019) and exercise groups (Dunlop & Beauchamp, 2011; Steffens et al., 2019). In exercise group members, identifying with the group has been associated with higher attendance and effort exerted within the exercise classes (Steffens et al., 2019). Self-categorization theory is a related theory that focuses on factors that contribute to perceiving oneself as part of a group and identifying with other group members (Beauchamp, 2019). Beauchamp (2019) describes the potential importance of social identity and self-categorization in the physical activity context to promote physical activity adherence.Given the potential of social identity in influencing physical activity adherence, researchers are starting to examine how leadership behaviors and other group factors (e.g., groupness or cohesion) may relate to the formation of social identity (Eys et al., 2019).

Learning Exercise Five

Think about the settings where you have exercised with other people. How did being part of a group influence your experience? What is it you liked or did not like about being part of a group?

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Reference

¹ While many people prefer to engage in physical activity, others may prefer to participate in activity alone for a variety of reasons including personality types and even experiences self-presentational anxiety (Hausenblas et al., 2004).

² The basic needs of autonomy and relatedness pertain the psychological needs that are part of the self-determination theory. When the basic psychological needs are satisfied in an activity, a person is thought to develop more autonomous motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000).