14.1: Why Be Mindful While Moving?

Although research on mindfulness has grown rapidly over just the last few decades, mindful forms of movement have a long, rich history. Today, this long tradition of mindful movement is merging with contempory research methods to produce new knowledge of the potential benefits of being mindful during physical activity. Current definitions of mindfulness tend to include two key parts. The first part relates to awareness of and attention to present-moment experience, rather than thinking about the past or the future (Bishop et al., 2004; Brown & Ryan, 2003). Present-moment experiences can include one’s thoughts, emotions, physical sensations or environment. For example, as you mindfully walk along a beach, various thoughts, the sound of waves crashing, and the feeling of smooth, wet sand giving way beneath your feet might naturally pass in and out of conscious awareness. Alternatively, you may choose to sit on the beach to watch the sunrise focusing all of your attention on that visual stimulus. Both this focusing of attention and open awareness are ways of directing attention mindfully.

The second part of the definition relates to attitude or the characteristics of present-oriented attention. It is not enough to simply be present. One must also be open, accepting, nonjudgmental and even curious about the things that are passing in and out of awareness. Without this second part of the definition, one is not truly being mindful. This definition highlights the nature of mindfulness as an experiential state. One can be more or less mindful on a moment to moment basis and this reflects one’s level of state mindfulness. We can assess mindfulness as a state or we can examine it as is more commonly done, as a trait. Trait mindfulness refers to one’s tendency or general disposition to be mindful throughout one’s day or across situations. As one might expect, higher levels of trait mindfulness predict higher state mindfulness, but they have also demonstrated independent effects when predicting certain outcome variables (Brown & Ryan, 2003). With these definitions and distinctions in mind, we will first explore examples of mindful movement and why being mindful during physical activity matters for one’s experiences in the moment as well as longer term outcomes. We will then explore the role that mindfulness might play in motivational processes within contemporary physical activity motivation theory and describe physical activity interventions.

Learning Exercise One

Check your recall and write down the two key parts of the definition of mindfulness. Next, let’s put mindfulness into action during a walking exercise. You can walk inside your home or outside, for a long time or just a few moments. While you are walking, see if you can apply mindful attention to all of the sensations of walking. This could include the movement of your arms, the contact between your feet and the ground and how it changes throughout each step, or muscular contraction in your legs, etc. Allow each sensation to arise in your awareness and then allow it to fade away. If it is really challenging to stay present with the sensations of walking, select just one focus of attention (e.g., your feet) and keep coming back to this target when you become distracted. How did this experience feel? What was difficult about it? What did you learn about yourself?

14.1.1. What is Mindful Movement?

During mindful movement, participants intentionally bring their attention to the experience of moving their body with an attitude of acceptance and nonjudgment that is characteristic of mindfulness more generally (Asztalos et al., 2012). This might include their breath, physical sensations, thoughts, and emotions. Moving mindfully requires deliberate, conscious attention be brought to the experience of moving. Popular forms of mindful movement include walking, tai chi, yoga, qi gong, Feldenkrais, and pilates. Research on the effects of yoga has grown more rapidly than research on other forms of mindful movement, perhaps due to its rapid acceleration in popularity among the general public. In both 2012 and 2017, yoga was the most commonly used complementary (i.e., outside of traditional Western medicine) health approach in adults in the United States (Clarke et al., 2018). From 2012 to 2017, the use of yoga in the last 12 months increased from 9.5% to 14.3% in adults. The growing popularity of yoga makes it accessible to both practitioners and researchers alike. Researchers who have studied mindful forms of movement have been largely interested in how it can be used as an adjunct therapy to support mental and physical well-being. More recently, researchers have dived more deeply into the psychological processes that occur when individuals are moving mindfully.

14.1.2. Experiences During Mindful Movement

One of the questions of most interest to researchers is how being mindful while moving impacts the nature of the movement experience. When moving mindfully, individuals not only direct their attention to their present-moment experience but are also open and accepting of whatever emerges in that experience. Alternatively, when individuals engage in physical activity and are not being mindful they might be thinking about the past or the future, judging some aspect of their experience (e.g., pain, ability, performance), thinking about what they look like while exercising, contemplating their exercise goals, or listening to music. Researchers are interested in how being fully present in one’s body while engaging in physical activity impacts one’s experiences while moving. Two areas that have received recent attention are the degree of pleasure experienced and how one experiences or inhabits their body while moving. In the sections that follow, we will explore the research evidence that reveals the way mindfulness can shape the movement experience.

14.1.2.1. Affective and Emotional Experiences

Some of the most compelling evidence of the benefits of mindful movement is that people simply feel good doing it. This is often captured by measuring participants’ affect or distinct emotional states (e.g., content, sad, irritated) either while they are participating in physical activity or retrospectively (i.e., recalling it after the fact). Affect refers to how people feel (e.g., good or bad; Ekkekakis & Petruzzello, 2000). It is the experiential piece of emotions such as anxiety or joy, but does not have to be derived from a specific emotion per se. In several studies, researchers have observed a relationship between mindful states and affective responses during physical activity. In a study that used experience sampling at random times throughout the day, college students’ moving, standing, and sitting behaviors as well as their negative affect (i.e., stress, anxiety, and generally feeling bad) were assessed in the moment over a fourteen day period (Yang & Conroy, 2018). Students experienced less negative affect during movement-based activities than when sitting or standing. Negative affect was also lower when participants were more mindful than usual while engaging in physical activity. Thus, a synergistic effect was observed where being mindful amplified the positive influence of physical activity on negative affect. In a different approach, Mackenzie et al. (2014) assessed participants’ focus of attention and affect across an 80-minute yoga class. Throughout the yoga class, simultaneous increases were observed for both an associative focus of attention (i.e., focus on the present moment) and positive affect. Thus, the more focused they were on moving in the present moment, the better they felt. Finally, in a study testing the effects of mindful walking, participants’ state mindfulness and positive and negative emotions were assessed multiple times a day using experience sampling methodology(Gotink et al., 2016). Results showed that state mindfulness and emotions experienced during mindful walking prospectively enhanced each other in an upward spiral. That is, state mindfulness in one moment positively predicted positive emotions in the next moment sampled. Similarly, positive emotions positively predicted state mindfulness in the next moment sampled. Therefore, the more participants focused their attention on the here and now throughout the study, the more pleasant their experience became. Overall, being attentive to the experience of moving in a nonjudgmental and accepting way appears to support positive affective and emotional experiences.

Learning Exercise Two

Recall a time when you were engaging in physical activity in a purely joyful, playful, and just plain fun way. Some of you might have to think way back to when you were a kid at the playground. Close your eyes. Try to recall everything you remember about that experience. What did you see, hear, smell, taste and feel? How did the experience make you feel? Write down everything you can remember. What aspects of mindfulness were a part of that experience? How can you recreate those experiences now?

14.1.2.2. Embodied Experiences

Mindfulness also plays a key role in how we experience living in our bodies, referred to as embodiment (Piran & Teall, 2012). Although embodiment can be defined in different ways,broadly speaking, it refers to our connection with our bodies. Piran (2016) further discusses how experiences of embodiment can be positive or negative along five different dimensions including body connection and comfort, agency and functionality, attuned self-care, experience and expression of bodily desire, and inhabiting the body as a subjective site. Overall, positive embodiment is described as “positive body connection and comfort, embodied agency and passion, and attuned self-care,” whereas negative embodiment is defined as “disrupted body connection and discomfort, restricted agency and passion,and self-neglect or harm” (Piran, 2016, p. 47). On the one hand, Piran discusses in her developmental theory of embodiment (DTE) how multiple factors contribute to negative embodiment, such as the way many cultures emphasize the importance of women’s physical attractiveness and evaluate them based on often unrealistic societal standards. This objectification of women’s bodies can cause them to dissociate from their physical experiences. On the other hand, she outlines the factors that support positive embodiment, which include immersing oneself in joyful physical activities. Full immersion in the act of moving one’s body is consistent with the way that mindful movement is described. Unsurprisingly, engaging in mindful forms of movement is associated with positive experiences of embodiment. In the next two sections, we will explore some of the research evidence connecting mindfulness to the dimensions of embodiment that have received more research attention: body connection and comfort and inhabiting the body as a subjective site.

Body Connection and Comfort. Qualitative investigations of individuals who participate in various forms of mindful movement highlight how the movement helps them feel more connected to their body or greater integration between mind and body. Many such studies have been conducted with yoga participants across different age groups and special populations (e.g., cancer survivors; those with chronic pain). These participants talk about how yoga increases their awareness of thoughts, feelings, emotions, and sensations (e.g., Cramer et al., 2013; Goncalves et al., 2016). With this greater awareness, they are able to be more present and decide how best to respond. For example, Dittman and Freedman(2009) interviewed women ages 22 to 72 years who practice yoga regularly. They reported an increased awareness and connection with their body due to practicing yoga. This connection helped them feel more grounded or present in their bodies and they were better able to listen and respond to their bodies’ needs. Although it may seem simple, responding to one’s needs like resting when tired or drinking water when thirsty is not as natural when experiencing disconnection from one’s body. Furthermore, they liked, respected, and appreciated their bodies more which is consistent with quantitative studies linking yoga participation to higher body appreciation (Cox et al., 2019; Halliwell et al., 2019). That is, during the course of yoga participation over a period of weeks, increases in the degree of love, respect, and appreciation women have for their bodies have been observed. The breath is a common focus of attention across different forms of mindful movement (e.g., yoga, tai chi, qigong) and may serve as one vehicle that fosters a close connection and comfort with one’s body.

Other types of physical activity such as dance may also provide an opportunity to feel connected and comfortable in one’s body. However, this is highly dependent on the type of dance. Tiggemann et al. (2014) proposed that belly dance was an embodying activity that promotes connection with one’s body due to a focus on breathing and the abdominal muscles as well as concentration and emphasis on connecting to the body. To test this proposition, they compared belly dancers to those who had never participated in belly dance on embodiment-related variables. Results showed that belly dancers had significantly higher levels of body appreciation relative to the comparison group. However, it is equally plausible that individuals who are already more comfortable in their bodies choose to participate in belly dancing. Stronger evidence comes from studies that have used dance or dance therapy as an intervention. For example, in one study, researchers interviewed male and female teenagers who participated in a dance movement psychotherapy session which is focused on feeling the body move(Grogan et al., 2014). The results revealed that participants felt greater body acceptance, less self-consciousness and more connected to their bodies after the dance therapy. No doubt moving in a mindful way, whether it be through yoga, dance, or sport, provides numerous opportunities to become both aware of sensations in the body that may be reflective of physiological and emotional states and accepting of what one finds, thus contributing to body connection and comfort.

Photo by RF._.studio from Pexels

Inhabiting the Body as a Subjective Site. Inhabiting one’s body subjectively means experiencing and interacting with the world from a first-person, internal perspective (Piran, 2016). It also refers to resisting the pressure to view one’s body from a third-person perspective, as an object to be judged for its external appearance. This third-person perspective is incompatible with the experience of being mindful while moving. For example, imagine dancing or doing tai-chi in front of mirrors. Perhaps you are completely immersed in the activity, bringing your attention fully to the feeling of the movement and sensation in your body. Then, you become distracted by your image in the mirror and before you know it, you are looking at yourself from an observer perspective. And because we are social creatures, seeing your own reflection likely turned into an evaluation of the image you perceived without you even realizing it. That doesn’t sound very mindful does it? In an instant, you are no longer aware of your own present-moment sensations as your attention is pulled out of experiencing your body and into evaluating an external image of yourself. The phrase “dance like nobody’s watching” sums up the value of resisting an external perspective and the joy that can arise from fully inhabiting your body.

We do not even need mirrors to prompt us to think about the way we appear to others from an observer perspective. Body surveillance is something people do all the time, some more than others. It refers to thinking about what you look like from a third-person perspective and it undermines inhabiting your body subjectively (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997). Mindful forms of movement may contribute to resisting this objectifying, third-person perspective by continually drawing attention to internal experiences of physical sensations, thoughts, and emotions. At the very core of mindful movement is inhabiting the body subjectively, from an internal perspective. Research evidence shows that through yoga participation, women start to value and appreciate the functionality of their bodies more and an emphasis on outward physical appearance can decline (Dittman & Freedman, 2009). This reflects a shift from an objectifying to embodied perspective. In support of such a shift, body surveillance has been found to decline over the course of participation in a yoga class over time (Cox et al., 2017; 2019; Impett et al., 2006). Further, an explanation for these shifts was documented in a study showing that when participants were more mindful during yoga class, they engaged in less body surveillance (Cox et al., 2017). And remember those belly dancers (Tiggemann et al., 2014)? They too reported significantly lower body surveillance compared to those who had not belly danced. Thus, being mindful while moving appears incompatible with an objectifying perspective of the self and may help promote inhabiting the body subjectively over time. Overall, engaging in mindful movement is associated with pleasant physical activity experiences and a positive state of embodiment.

Learning Exercise Three

Recall a time when you felt quite self-conscious engaging in physical activity. Maybe you were looking in the mirror frequently or thinking about the other people around you observing you. What did that experience feel like? What thoughts were going through your head? What do you notice about the way it feels to exercise or move when you are thinking about your outward appearance or others judging you? Finally, how could you bring your attention inward to the experience and sensations of moving your body?

14.1.2. Outcomes of Mindful Movement

Mindful forms of movement or physical activity have also been linked to a number of mental and physical health benefits as well as other healthy behaviors. We know that mindful movement, like physical activity more generally, is associated with a wide range of physical health outcomes. In line with an exercise psychology perspective, here we will discuss some of the psychological and behavioral outcomes associated with mindful movement.

14.1.2.1. Trait Mindfulness

At a very basic level, participating in mindful movement can be an effective strategy for increasing overall levels of trait mindfulness. Presumably, any activity in which an individual is being mindful is enhancing one’s ability to be mindful in general. Kiken and colleagues (2015) provided evidence of this from participants in an 8-week Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction Program (MBSR; Kabat-Zinn, 1990). Each week of the program, they assessed participants’ levels of state mindfulness during a meditation exercise. What they found was that growth in state mindfulness over the eight weeks of the program contributed to growth in trait mindfulness. Similarly, engaging in various forms of mindful movement over time has been associated with increases in trait mindfulness. In one study of college students, increases in trait mindfulness were observed over the course of 16 weeks of yoga participation (Cox & McMahon, 2019). In another study, college students participated in taijiquan, a martial art that originated in China, twice a week for 15 weeks (Caldwell et al., 2011). The students who participated in taijiquan classes, increased significantly in trait mindfulness whereas those in a comparison class that involved similar levels of physical activity did not. The physical sensations that we experience while moving may provide a more tangible, dynamic, and interesting focus of attention relative to sedentary or breath-based forms of mindfulness practice. Mindful movement has been shown to be more effective than seated mindfulness practices for supporting the development of trait mindfulness (Carmody & Baer, 2008). Thus, mindful movment may not only provide a more accessible and attractive entry point for engaging in mindfulness practices, but may even be more effective than seated practices for developing trait mindfulness.

14.1.2.2. Mental Health

The cultivation of mindfulness while moving may lead to better mental health benefits than either seated forms of mindfulness (Hunt et al., 2018) or physical activity that is not mindful (Asztalos et al., 2012). The positive link between physical activity and mental health indicators is well-established (e.g., McDowell et al., 2019; Rebar et al., 2015); however, combined with acceptance and detachment from one’s thoughts, emotions, and other experiences, mindful physical activity may enhance the positive mental health benefits of physical activity alone. There is no shortage of empirical evidence linking mindful forms of movement such as tai chi, yoga, and mindful walking to positive mental health or psychological well-being. For example, older adults in a 6-month tai chi program experienced increases in positive affect and well-being and decreases in negative affect, depression, and psychological distress (Li et al., 2001). In another study, adults with high psychological distress demonstrated large reductions in stress over the course of a 4-week mindful walking program (Teut et al., 2013). And in yet a different form of mindful movement, yoga participation, has consistently been linked to the reduction of physiological markers of stress (e.g., cortisol; Pascoe et al., 2017) and overall psychological well-being in youth (Noggle et al., 2012) and adults (Hartfiel et al., 2011)alike. Thus, there is robust support for the psychological benefit of engaging ina range of mindful movement at all ages.

Mindful movement may also be more effective for supporting positive mental health compared to various seated forms of mindfulness practice. MBSR (Kabat-Zinn, 1990) is one of the most popular and widely researched mindfulness programs. It includes both seated (e.g., meditation) and movement-based forms of mindfulness like yoga and walking and is consistently linked to reductions in stress and other indicators of psychological well-being (e.g., Shearer et al., 2015). However, given the known psychological benefits of mindfulness in general, it is unclear to what degree mindful movement may be responsible for the positive outcomes associated with MBSR programs. In one study hoping to disentangle the various elements of MBSR, college students were randomly assigned to one of five conditions: a) mindfulness and meditation alone, b) yoga alone, c) yoga with mindfulness and meditation training, d) study break with snacks and therapy dog , or e) no treatment control for four weeks (Hunt et al., 2018). At the end of the intervention, only the yoga alone and yoga plus mindfulness/meditation groups had significantly lower anxiety and negative affect compared to the no treatment control group. The results of this study provide some initial evidence that there may be a synergistic effect when movement is combined with mindfulness. Moving mindfully could provide an optimal combination for supporting positive mental health. However, much more research is needed that provides direct comparisons among different types of physical activities, seated mindfulness practices, and mindful movement practices.

14.1.2.3. Healthy Behaviors

Other potential beneficial outcomes of engaging in mindful movement include health behaviors. As with other areas of research on mindful movement, most of this work has been conducted on yoga participants. Individuals who participate in yoga on a regular basis report that it has promoted healthy habits in the areas of eating, physical activity, sleep, and engaging in relaxation (e.g., Watts et al., 2018). For example, in one study, young adults reported that their yoga practice motivated them to eat healthier and be more mindful of what they are eating; they also reported increased healthier cravings and less emotional eating (Watts et al., 2018). Furthermore, yoga motivated them to be more active outside of yoga and provided them with the skills to try other forms of physical activity. Other studies have found that yoga participants are able to use what they learn in yoga to engage in stress reduction strategies outside of yoga and better respond to their needs with self-care (Galentino et al., 2012; Goncalves, et al., 2016; Rhodes, 2015). One of the most frequent examples yoga participants give is using the breathwork they learn in yoga to respond to stressful situations in their daily lives.

The relationship between mindful movement and healthy behaviors may be due to increases in attunement with the self that occur when being mindful. Through increased awareness of what the mind and body feel like, individuals can better discern how best to respond to and take care of one’s self. This attuned self-care is also one of Piran’s (2016) five dimensions of embodiment. In a study of adults with chronic neck pain, participants talked about how increased body awareness from yoga helped them better see the connection between their behaviors and their well-being (Cramer et al., 2013).Therefore, mindful movement activities may support health and well-being directly as well as indirectly by supporting additional healthy behaviors.