23.4: The Scientific Study of Music in Sport

In recent decades, numerous studies have explored the application of music as a regulator of emotion and as an ergogenic aid in the sporting realm (see Terry et al., 2020). Karageorghis and Priest (2012a, 2012b) highlighted the advantages of applying music to athletes’ precompetition routines as well as to their training regimens. More recently, a meta-analysis by Terryet al. (2020) that embraced sport and exercise, showed that music had a small but significant effect on physical performance (g = 0.31). We will review the literature in line with the taxonomy of pretask, in-task, and post-task applications of music in sport.

23.4.1. Pretask Music

Many of the studies exploring the effects of music prior to sports performance have focused on the dichotomy of stimulative vs. sedative music (e.g., Eliakim et al., 2007; Karageorghis, Bigliassi et al., 2018). Albeit many of sports’ governing bodies have prohibited the use of personal music devices in the competitive arena, pretask music has been commonly used during warm-up and as part of a pre-event routine. In his review, Smirmaul (2017) suggested that research into pretask music lacked systematic organization, was methodologically constrained, and appeared only infrequently in the broader sports science literature. Moreover, he highlighted that the findings pertaining to the pretask application of music were inconclusive in terms of ensuing ergogenic effects.

It appears that, as might be expected, pretask music has a more pronounced effect on brief or anaerobic tasks, such as grip strength or Wingate Anaerobic Test (WAnT) performance, when compared to tasks of longer duration (Smirmaul, 2017). In an early related study, Hall and Erickson (1995) administered a stimulating musical piece (Gonna Fly Now by Bill Conti) and found that it contributed to faster times over a 60-m dash when compared to a no-music control. The researchers only administered a stimulative music condition and so we do not know the effects of an alternative music condition or sound per se on sprint performance (e.g., sedative music or crowd noise).

Yamamoto et al. (2003) reported that 20 min of slow-tempo music lowered levels of arousal prior to an all-out effort on a cycle ergometer, whereas fast-tempo music had the converse effect. Neither condition had any influence on performance (i.e., power output). The slow-tempo music did, however, decrease plasma norepinephrine concentration, while the fast tempo increased plasma epinephrine, which is implicated in the fight-or-flight response. Eliakim et al. (2007) examined the influence of stimulative music played while participants warmed-up to perform the WAnT and did not find any ergogenic effect. Nonetheless, the music did elevate HR levels prior to execution of the task (i.e., the music upregulated physiological arousal).

More recently, Karageorghis, Cheek et al. (2018) conducted a study into grip strength that entailed five pretask music conditions, which were administered to male athletes: fast/loud (126bpm/80 dBA), fast/soft (126 bpm/70 dBA), slow/loud (87 bpm/80 dBA), slow/soft (87 bpm/70 dBA) music, and a no-music control. They found that fast-tempo music played at a high intensity led to the highest grip-strength scores, whereas at a low-intensity, it led to much lower grip strength. In addition, affective valence scores were highest with fast/loud music. Thus, the use of fast/loud pretask music could enhance affective valence and arousal levels when athletes prepare fora simple or gross motor task (e.g., sprinting or powerlifting).

The application of music in the context of target-based sports (e.g., archery, bowls, darts, and shooting) is done primarily with a view to downregulate arousal levels prior to competition. Kuan (2014) conducted a study with unfamiliar relaxing and arousing music applied to elite shooters and weightlifters. He found that unfamiliar, relaxing music was more conducive to mental imagery than arousing music prior to a simulated competition in both contexts. The mental imagery accompanied by relaxing music led to performance gains for both sets of athletes.

In a follow-up study, Kuan et al. (2018) investigated the effects of relaxing and arousing music during imagery training in preparation for dart-throwing performance (Figure 23.2). Participants were assigned to one of three conditions: unfamiliar relaxing music, unfamiliar arousing music, or a no-music control. Measures of galvanic skin response, peripheral temperature, and HR showed that, as expected, listening to relaxing music served to lower arousal (see Figure 23.3, Figure 23.4, and Figure 23.5). Notably, the relaxing music elicited the greatest performance gains as well as more adaptive profiles on the revised Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2R; i.e., precompetition anxiety was perceived as being more facilitative to performance).

Figure 23.2. Dart-throwing Performance Gain Scores for Unfamiliar Relaxing Music, Unfamiliar Arousing Music and No-music Conditions

Note. *p<.05. Error bars represent standard deviation. Reproduced from Kuan, G., Morris, T., Kueh, Y. C., & Terry, P. C. (2018). Effects of relaxing and arousing music during imagery training on dart-throwing performance, physiological arousal indices, and competitive state anxiety. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 14, https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00014 under a Creative Commons Attribution Licence (CC BY).

Figure 23.3. Mean Galvanic Skin Response (GSR) From t₀ to t₅₄₀ in Sessions 1 and 12

Note. Measures were only taken in Session 1 and Session 12. Reproduced from Kuan, G., Morris, T., Kueh, Y. C., & Terry, P. C. (2018). Effects of relaxing and arousing music during imagery training on dart-throwing performance, physiological arousal indices, and competitive state anxiety. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 14,

https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00014 under a Creative Commons Attribution Licence (CC BY).

A recent study by Rebadomia et al. (2019) that integrated a brainwave entrainment technique with music showed that alpha (12 Hz) wave-synchronized music substantially increased participants’ throwing distances (shot put, discus, and javelin) and the theta (4–7 Hz) wave-synchronized music significantly reduced throwing distance. Although the study is limited given that it employed a quasi-experimental design and there were only six participants, it supported earlier findings (e.g., Kuan, 2014; Kuan et al., 2018) showing that the use of relaxing music can influence performance in both fine-motor and power/motoric sports.

Research has shown that pretask music can be used to: (a) manipulate emotional states; (b) enhance athletic performance in short-duration sports (e.g., sprint events); (c) promote task-relevant imagery; and (d) assuage precompetition anxiety. There is, however, relatively limited research in this area, creating considerable scope for further applied work into how music can help athletes to attain optimal preperformance states.

23.4.1. In-Task Music

Music is a tool that can be applied in-task for training and, in some instances, competition. Several studies support the application of music for continuous, endurance-type performance. Researchers have been interested in two main in-task applications of music—synchronous and asynchronous.

Figure 23.4. Mean Peripheral Temperature (PT) From t₀ to t₅₄₀ in Sessions 1 and 12

Note. Measures were only taken in Session 1 and Session 12. Reproduced from Kuan, G., Morris, T., Kueh, Y. C., & Terry, P. C. (2018). Effects of relaxing and arousing music during imagery training on dart-throwing performance, physiological arousal indices, and competitive state anxiety. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 14, https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00014 under a Creative Commons Attribution Licence (CC BY).

23.4.1.1. Synchronous Music

Synchronous in-task music is used for psychological benefits as well as an ergogenic aid, and often accompanies endurance-based tasks such as running or indoor cycling (Karageorghis & Priest, 2012b). The application of synchronous music is more likely to result in ergogenic effects than the asynchronous application (Karageorghis & Priest, 2012a; 2012b). When athletes train in sync with music, they tend to work harder and for longer (Terry et al., 2012).

A number of studies have explored the effects of synchronous music during endurance-based activities such as running and cycle ergometry. Terry et al. (2012) tested elite Australian triathletes who performed a treadmill running task. Participants endured for longer in the presence of two synchronous music conditions (motivational vs. neutral). The researchers found that time-to-exhaustion was 18.1% and 19.7% longer when running in sync with motivational and neutral music, respectively, when compared to a no-music control. Furthermore, mood responses and feeling states were more positive under motivational music compared to either neutral or no-music conditions. A potential limitation was that the sterile laboratory environment may have been so unstimulating for the demanding endurance-based task, that the music served as a welcome distraction from rather dull surroundings.

Karageorghis et al. (2010) examined the effects of synchronous music using more complex motor tasks than running or cycle ergometry. They used a series of strength-endurance, circuit-type tasks performed to exhaustion under three conditions (each at a tempo of 120 bpm): motivational music (i.e., that inspires movement), motivationally neutral music, and an auditory metronome. Exercises such as sit-ups, standingsquats, and heel raises are a staple of many athletes’ training regimens. Interestingly, Karageorghis et al. (2010) found that women recorded significantly higher strength-endurance performance and affective valence scores than men, when exposed to the two music conditions. There is scope for further examination of gender differences in response to music while experimentally manipulating the complexity of motor tasks.

Photo by Anete Lusina from Pexels

Figure 23.5. Mean Heart Rate (bpm) From t₀ to t₅₄₀ in Sessions 1 and 12

Note. Measures were only taken in Session 1 and Session 12. Reproduced from Kuan, G., Morris, T., Kueh, Y. C., & Terry, P. C. (2018). Effects of relaxing and arousing music during imagery training on dart-throwing performance, physiological arousal indices, and competitive state anxiety. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 14, https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00014 under a Creative Commons Attribution Licence (CC BY).

In an applied study, Karageorghis et al. (2019) examined the effects of synchronous music over a one-month period of speed-endurance training. Twelve recreational athletes were assigned to one of two groups: (a) Sprint training coordinated with synchronous music; or (b) a control condition with conventional sprint training and no music. The findings showed that, after a month of training,participants in the synchronous music group executed the 400-m time trials 5.07% faster than the control group. The authors suggested that longer periods of monitoring and application of synchronous music would provide greater insight into the possible benefits of synchronous music protocols in a sport training context.

The effects of synchronous music on psychophysiological parameters and running performance in hot and humid conditions was investigated by Nikol et al. (2018). Runners completed two running trials in simulated situations, recreating 31°C heat coupled with 70% humidity, under conditions of synchronous music and no music. Participants ran on a treadmill located inside a climate chamber for 60 min at 60% V0₂max and continued to run at 80% V0₂max, until they reached voluntary exhaustion. Time to exhaustion was 66.59% longer in the synchronous music condition when compared to control. Moreover, RPE scores were lower at each time point (15, 30, 45, and 60 min) of the steady-state part of the protocol (i.e., 60% V0₂max) in the synchronous music condition (see Figure 23.6). The results illustrate how runners can benefit from synchronous music under hot and humid conditions. However, the study did not include an asynchronous music condition and so it is not known whether synchronization per se was responsible for the observed effects. The study highlights the need for more studies that compare synchronous vs. asynchronous music (see also, Terry et al., 2020).

Figure 23.6. Participants’ Rating of Perceived Exertion Under Two Conditions

Note. Error bars represent standard deviation. Created using data from Nikol, L., Kuan, G., Ong, M., Chang, Y-K, & Terry, P. C. (2018). The heat is on: effects of synchronous music on psychophysiological parameters and running performance in hot and humid conditions. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 1114, https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01114 under a Creative Commons Attribution Licence (CC BY).

23.4.1.2. Asynchronous Music

The asynchronous application of music has, by a wide margin, attracted the greatest research interest in the music-and-sport literature (see Terry et al., 2020). This application of music occurs when human movement is not consciously synchronized with the rhythmical qualities of music (Karageorghis & Terry, 1997). There have been studies into the psychological, psychophysical, psychophysiological, and ergogenic effects of asynchronous music in a sporting context (e.g., Birnbaum et al., 2009; Karageorghis et al., 2013). The main benefit of using asynchronous music is that it can create a more pleasant training environment and enhance training experiences. Its application can reduce RPE by ~10%, but only during submaximal training intensities, given that physiological cues predominate attention during high-intensity tasks, such as all-out rowing ergometry (Karageorghis & Priest, 2012a). Asynchronous music can also enhance positive affect or reduce negative affect; even at relatively high work intensities (e.g., Hutchinson et al., 2018; Karageorghis & Jones, 2014).

Stork et al. (2015) conducted a study that applied asynchronous music to the WAnT, with four 30-s “all-out” bouts. The peak and mean power achieved by participants was higher in the music condition when compared to a no-music control. A potential limitation of the study is that self-selected music was used, and therefore the psychoacoustic properties of the music were not standardized across participants. Stork et al. (2019) conducted a follow-up study on the effects of experimenter-selected asynchronous music on Sprint Interval Training (SIT). Their findings showed that postexercise enjoyment was higher with the music condition when compared to podcast and no-audio controls. Also, the affective responses throughout the SIT trial were more positive in the music condition. These findings are relevant to athletes who engage in high-intensity, interval-type training.

Research has shown that in-task music can be used to: (a) engender an ergogenic effect (particularly when used in the synchronous mode); (b) enhance athletic performance when applied longitudinally; (c) reduce RPE by ~10% in submaximal training tasks; and (d) enhance affect at a range of training intensities. There is a dearth of research comparing synchronous vs. asynchronous music and this should be a focus for future studies.

23.4.2. Post-Task Music

The use of post-task music for movement-based recovery, also known as active recovery, or static recovery, often referred to as passive recovery, is an approach that has seldom been examined by researchers (Karageorghis, 2017). One of the most common uses of post-task music for athletes is to regulate or modulate affective valence and arousal (i.e., engender positive feelings) after intense training or competition (Karageorghis, 2016). You will recall that post-task music can be applied in respite forms (i.e., in between high-intensity exercise bouts) and as a recuperative tool (i.e., at the end of a training session or competition).

Jones et al. (2017) examined the psychophysiological effects of respite–passive music (i.e., music used for static recovery) on acute recovery from high-intensity, 5-min running bouts performed by male middle-distance runners. Upon completion of each running bout, participants were exposed to slow-tempo music (55–65 bpm), fast-tempo music (125–135 bpm), or a no-music control. A range of measures were taken that included affective responses, RPE, gas exchange, and pulmonary ventilation. The researchers found that fast-tempo music resulted in higher scores on the Feeling Scale (i.e., enhanced affective valence) over the entire 3-min static recovery period compared to a no-music control.

Karageorghis et al. (2021) investigated the effects of respite–active music (i.e., music used for active recovery). They administered medium-tempo (120–125 bpm), fast-tempo (135–140 bpm), and no-music control conditions using a high-intensity interval training (HIIT) protocol. They reported that the medium-tempo music condition improved affective valence during exercise and active recovery. Both medium-and fast-tempo music increased dissociation, exercise enjoyment, and remembered pleasure relative to the control condition. In addition, medium-tempo music was shown to reduce RPE during recovery periods. Jones et al. (2020) contrasted two music conditions (respite–active and continuous) with a no-music control using a HIIT protocol. In contrast to Karageorghis et al., they found that music did not influence affective valence during either exercise bouts or recovery periods. Nonetheless, Jones et al. reported that the continuous application of music resulted in greater post-task enjoyment and remembered pleasure than respite–active music. In this instance, the music tempo, which was in the range 120–140 bpm, may not have been optimal for use in active recovery toward the high end of this range.

Finally, with the notion that slow, sedative music can facilitate the recovery process that follows exhaustive exercise (i.e., a recuperative music application), Karageorghis, Bruce et al. (2018) investigated the effects of two music conditions vs. a no-music control on psychological and psychophysiological recovery indices. The two music conditions were slow, sedative music (M_tempo = 71 bpm) and fast, stimulative music (M_tempo = 129 bpm). The authors found that slow, sedative music facilitated the downregulation of affective arousal (see Figure 23.7). The greatest decrease in affective arousal between active and passive recovery phases was evident in the slow, sedative condition. Women had a more pronounced reduction in arousal than men in response to the slow, sedative music condition. HR measures showed that fast, stimulative music inhibited the return of HR toward resting levels. There was a main effect of condition for affective valence suggesting that the slow, sedative condition induced more positive affective responses when compared with the control and fast, stimulative conditions.

Figure 23.7. Twoway Condition × Time Interaction for Affective Arousal (p < .001)

Note. Adapted from Karageorghis, C. I., Bruce, A. C., Pottratz, S. T., Stevens, R. C., Bigliassi, M., & Hamer, M. (2018). Psychological and psychophysiological effects of recuperative music post-exercise. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 50(4), 739–746, https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000001497 under a Creative Commons Attribution Licence (CC BY).

Research has shown that post-task music can be used to: (a) enhance affective responses following exhaustive training sessions; (b) improve the experience of training sessions predicated on HIIT-type protocols; and (c) facilitate physiological recovery but notably not when the tempo is high.

Post-task music has been the least investigated music application and so there is potential for a broad range of research. A particularly valuable line of work would be to use physiological (e.g., blood lactate), psychophysiological (e.g., electroencephalography; EEG), and neurophysiological (e.g., functional near-infrared spectroscopy; fNIRS) measures alongside subjective measures of recovery (e.g., the Feeling Scale; Hardy & Rejeski, 1989).