23.5: How to Apply Music in Sport

Athletes are able to derive benefit from the use of music before, during, or even after sport, as detailed in the earlier sections of this chapter. Invariably, athletes’ needs will differ and so the first thing to make clear is that there is no simple, “one-tune-fits-all”-type solution. In this section, we explore how music can be used for performance enhancement, considering, among other factors, athletes’ preferences, sport-specific requirements, and a range of musical factors (e.g., rhythm and lyrics).

23.5.1. Using Music Before Sport

For coaches and athletes wanting to harness the power of music, careful consideration of the use of pretask music is a good point of origin. Commencing a training session or competition in the “right” physical and mental state is often crucial for performance success. Music can help in fine-tuning an athlete’s emotional state and controlling their thought patterns before sport (Bishop, 2010).

Many athletes benefit from starting a competition with an elevated level of arousal. Fast and loud music induces physiological changes such as increases in HR, blood pressure, and muscle tension. This happens irrespective of how much athletes actually like the music (see e.g., Chapados & Levitin, 2008). Fast, loud music can therefore help a sprinter to rocket out of the starting blocks and may provide a tennis player with a mental edge over an opponent. For sprinters, The Prodigy’s Run With The Wolves (166 bpm) might represent a good example, and for tennis players, Black Eyed Peas’ Boom Boom Pow (130 bpm). The latter track was famously used by Andy Murray (former world #1 men’s singles player).

23.5.1.1. To Each Their Own

Not all athletes need or want to be as happy as a lark just before a training session or competition. Some will choose to listen to dark and aggressive music, such as heavy metal, in order to feel confident and strong (Karageorghis, 2017). Powerlifters might pick tracks such as Linkin Park’s One Step Closer (95 bpm), while snowboarders might go for Lords Of The Boards by the Guano Apes (104 bpm) to feel self-assured before a sharp descent or a 70-foot jump.

Each athlete needs to experience a level of arousal that is compatible with their upcoming task(s), but even for rather similar tasks, their personal preferences can differ. Some may interpret their heightened arousal as positive excitement, while others may dislike these sensations and feel anxious or stressed. Music can steer athletes toward a positive interpretation of their feelings of excitement, pressure, or anxiety before sporting competition (Smirmaul, 2017).

Figure 23.8 depicts how the athlete’s characteristics, components of the sport, and attributes of a musical piece relate to one another in determining the optimal musical choice for performance enhancement in sport. It’s not always music of the fast/loud variety that does the trick. Music that is soft and slow can help an athlete to relax and attain a calm mindset (Bishop et al., 2007), which might be beneficial for athletes who prefer to begin their training or competition in a relatively placid state.

Music chosen for the downregulation of arousal can be sourced from many musical genres, depending on an athlete’s preferences (e.g., pop, folk, or reggae). Pieces with relatively simple and slow rhythms tend to work well in terms of decreasing affective and physiological arousal (Karageorghis, 2016). Classical music, ballads, or ethnic songs can all work effectively. Athletes might try Johann Pachelbel’s well-known Canon in D (72 bpm), Katie Melua’s Nine Million Bicycles (82 bpm), or Empire by Shakira (80 bpm).

Figure 23.8. Factors Relevant to Optimal Music Selection in Sport

23.5.1.2. The Importance of Familiarity

Familiar music can simply make athletes “feel good” (i.e., enhance their affective valence). Listening to pretask music that triggers happy memories or reminds athletes of their role models/heroes, can positively impact their emotional state and increase self-efficacy (Bishop et al., 2007; Karageorghis, Cheek et al., 2018).

Perhaps basketball players will have a penchant for LeBron James and Kevin Durant’s rap It Ain’t Easy (88 bpm), while soccer players prefer World At Your Feet by Embrace (124 bpm). Gymnasts might settle their nerves with Ludovico Einaudi’s Nuvole Bianche (133 bpm), a soothing piano piece that conjures images of the Olympic performance of gymnast Lieke Wevers in 2016. Other tracks with positive extramusical associations include Katy Perry’s Roar (90 bpm) and Kanye West’s Touch The Sky (106 bpm; ft. Lupe Fiasco).

23.5.1.3. A Musical Aide-Mémoire

By facilitating the recall of previous successful or enjoyable sporting experiences, music can bolster motivation and self-confidence. Through the earlier-described process of evaluative conditioning (Juslin, 2013), familiar music can even evoke psychological and physiological reactions of which an athlete is not consciously aware (Terry et al., 2020).

Musical pieces can be selected to help athletes remember crucial tactical or technical instructions. In learning correct technique for the shot put, for example, young athletes can use the lyrics of Push It (130 bpm) by Salt-N-Pepa. This encourages them to “push” rather than try to “throw” the shot; the most common technical error. When music is an integral aspect of performance, such as in ice dancing and synchronized swimming, athletes can use the soundtrack of their routine to mentally rehearse their performance as part of their precompetition preparations.

The minutes just before a game or competition can be particularly stressful. Music can help athletes to remain suitably focused on the task at hand (Laukka & Quick, 2013). Athletes can also use motivational or inspiring lyrics to prompt use of a personal mantra. Repeating part of a chorus from uplifting pieces such as Sia’s The Greatest (96 bpm; feat. Kendrick Lamar) or singing along to the lyrics of The Power (109 bpm) by Snap! can bolster an athlete’s self-efficacy and serves to distract them from unhelpful thoughts.

23.5.1.4. Building Team Cohesion

As all members of a team should feel comfortable with a playlist used to promote cohesion, selecting music in team sports can be a challenging process. It is, nonetheless, well worth getting at least some buy-in from all team members (see e.g., Karageorghis, Bigliassi et al., 2018). Team songs can be played during the team’s travels or as a sonic background in the changing room. Simply moving in synchrony during a warm-up routine increases social harmony as well as a sense of belonging (Cross et al., 2019). Music can thus instill a strong sense of esprit de corps, enhancing a team’s cohesion and collaboration (Høigaard et al., 2013).

A team anthem or collective playlist can remind athletes of previous successes as well as past collective struggles. This can strengthen the belief of individual players in the team’s abilities, enhancing commitment and resilience even during periods of repeated losses (Morgan et al., 2017). Athletes who believe in their team’s abilities and its members’ qualities are more disposed toward “giving their all” (Ronglan, 2007). A team might choose to use a track such as Firework by Katy Perry (124 bpm) or the New Radicals’ You Get What You Give (114 bpm) to strengthen the perception of team cohesion in the prematch phase.

23.5.1.5. With a Little Help From Our Fans

Music can motivate a crowd of sports fans, creating an atmosphere of passion and excitement. On home turf, this is an integral part of the home advantage phenomenon (Karageorghis, 2017). The sound of a supportive crowd belting out a well-known chorus or chanting a player’s name can raise athletes’ spirits and the sense of collective efficacy (Bray & Widmeyer, 2000; Karageorghis & Terry, 2011). In many sports, individual athletes or teams select a “walk-on song” that represents their values and enables fans to identify more closely with them. Such applications of music can be valuable in creating a sense of community among athletes, spectators, pundits, and even sponsors.

The New Zealand rugby team’s haka is a good example of the use of music (also incorporating tribal chanting and dance) to increase team spirit. Fans the world over know and look forward to the traditional battle-chant with which the All Blacks express their determination and lay down the challenge to their opponents. Many teams can be at least mildly intimidated by such bravado and indeed the central purpose for the All Blacks is to fill their adversaries with dread.

23.5.2. Using Music During Sport

Many sportspeople have noticed that their training sessions pass easier when they listen to music. Precisely how beneficial music can be depends on many factors, such as an athlete’s personality,as well as the intensity and duration of their effort. Whether or not music can be helpful also depends on the complexity and type of task that is being executed. We will go on to explore how the power of music can be tapped during sport or training.

23.5.2.1. Dissociation and Distraction

During sport activities of low-to-moderate intensity, music can reduce feelings of discomfort and fatigue by hindering the transmission of sensory information from the body to the brain (Bigliassi et al., 2017). Athletes thus perceive their effort as being lower in relative terms. Given that athletes base their intended speed or power output on these perceptions of effort (Venhorst et al., 2018), music can make them run faster or push harder, compared to when music is not available (Karageorghis, 2016). Note that during very high intensities (e.g., sprinting or “Insanity” sessions) music is relatively ineffective in reducing perceived exertion.

23.5.2.2. Maintaining Appropriate Focus

Even if it does not affect athletes’ perceived exertion, musical distraction can make it seem as though time is passing by faster. It also facilitates positive thoughts (Karageorghis, 2016) and thus can render the experience of mundane activities such as circuit training or repetitive drills in sports like volleyball or tennis, more pleasurable.

During long training sessions, such as running or swimming, athletes should select tracks with a steady beat. Concentrating on a regular rhythm helps athletes to stay focused on the task at hand and maintain regularity in their movement patterns. This approach has been shown to make endurance activities more energy efficient, particularly when the music is used synchronously (Bacon et al., 2012). Pieces with a predictable structure and simple melodic themes “suck athletes in” and can lock with their movement pattern. Good examples include Fedde Le Grand’s Put Your Hands Up 4 Detroit (128 bpm) and Pump It Up by Endor (129 bpm).

23.5.2.3. Supramaximal Efforts

When athletes train or compete at high intensities, music cannot block pain and discomfort from entering their focal awareness (Karageorghis et al., 2011; Terry et al., 2020). Nevertheless, listening to easy-to-absorb, preferred music can increase athletes’ motivation, enjoyment, and affective state (Stork et al., 2019). During high-intensity training such as SIT, appropriate music is fast (>125 bpm; Maddigan et al., 2019), uplifting, loud (> 70 dBA), and characterized by a steady beat (Karageorghis, 2016). Lyrics are somewhat less important, as it is hard for athletes to process lyrical content during highly strenuous training sessions (Karageorghis, 2017). Good examples include Daft Punk’s Harder, Better, Faster, Stronger (126 bpm) or Party Rock Anthem by LMFAO (130 bpm; feat.Lauren Bennett and GoonRock).

23.5.2.4. Music as a Pacemaker

Moving in time with the beat of a popular song comes rather naturally to most people (Buhmann et al., 2016; Terry et al., 2012). This form of synchronous application of music can help an athlete to maintain an even pace throughout an endurance-based training session and increase their movement efficiency (Bacon et al., 2012; Terry et al., 2012). To use music in a synchronous way, the rhythm and tempo of the chosen tracks need to complement an athlete’s movement pattern and rate (Karageorghis et al., 2017). Regular and well-pronounced beats make it easier for athletes to follow the music’s meter.

Many runners have experienced how music with the “right” rhythm can seem to slightly hasten their pace and thus bolster their performance (Van Dyck & Leman, 2016). For example, the great Ethiopian distance runner, Haile Gebrselassie, believed that running to the track Scatman (136 bpm) by Scatman John provided exactly the rhythmic stimulus he needed to maintain an optimal pace. He used this track as the sonic backdrop to an indoor world best for 2000 m in 1998. Also, for cyclists training indoors, music can help them to sustain an optimal cadence and maintain power output throughout lengthy training sessions (Waterhouse et al., 2010).

Some sports present particular challenges when it comes to syncing movement to the beat. In rowing, for example, athletes execute a full-body movement that leads to a stroke rate of ~25 strokes per min. Their preferred music, however, is often far in excess of 30 beats per minute! A good solution is to select a moderate-tempo track, such as Shakira’s Hips Don’t Lie (feat. Wyclef Jean) or Q-Tip’s Breathe And Stop—both at a tempo of 100 bpm—and to execute one full stroke over each set of four beats (i.e., a musical measure or bar).

23.5.2.5. Music in the Competitive Arena

In many artistic sports, music is an integral part of performance. In gymnastics or ice dance, success depends greatly on the judges’ evaluation—the correspondence between a piece of music and an athlete’s movement pattern is thoroughly scrutinized. Soundtracks for sport routines usually comprise some fast, rhythmic sections that correspond with the most difficult, demanding, and fast-paced movements. They also include more sedate sections, during which an athlete can catch their breath before the next burst of effort. The music punctuates each movement sequence and it seems as though the athlete merges with their auditory accompaniment. A great example concerns Gabrielle Douglas’s floor routine during the 2012 London Olympics, wherein she used a high-energy mash-up of Memories (130 bpm) by David Guetta feat. Kid Cudi, and Yolanda Be Cool’s We No Speak Americano (125 bpm) for an impressive acrobatic tumbling series.

Mindlessly using music as acoustic wallpaper is not an approach we would recommend. Music can be an unwanted distraction when athletes are learning new motor skills, or when they need to concentrate on complex decision-making processes (Karageorghis & Terry, 2011). The absence of music could also be preferable when athletes are receiving feedback from their coach or when they need to communicate with teammates.

Using personal in-task music is often not permitted during competitions (e.g., in track and field; Van Dyck & Leman, 2016). We would thus encourage endurance athletes to complete a couple of training sessions each week without music. This makes them less reliant on music and can prepare them for the (likely unpleasant) sensations they will encounter while competing.

23.5.3. Respite and Recuperative Music

23.5.3.1. Respite Music

In many sports, athletes have a brief period of time in between consecutive physical tasks, ranging from repeated sprint efforts or several games on one day (e.g., in a tournament setting). Well-chosen respite music can help athletes to make optimal use of this (brief) period of recovery (Jones et al., 2017).

Music applied during training can encourage athletes to take sufficient time to recover before going again or initiating another set of activity. This is important in sports where athletes need near maximal power output to perform optimally (e.g., sprint events in swimming or track and field). When training intensity is extremely high (e.g., during supramaximal intervals), respite music could be most effective when used in between intervals. At these moments, athletes can concentrate on the music, which has been found to assuage negative affect (Karageorghis et al., 2021).

Moderately stimulating and optimistic (happy) music with a simple melodic structure and catchy lyrics can be ideal. We would suggest a medium tempo for respite music (i.e., 115–125 bpm); this will help in maintaining the level of psychomotor arousal required for the next task. Examples of suitable tracks include Get Lucky by Daft Punk feat. Pharrell Williams and Nile Rodgers (116 bpm) and Express Yourself by Madonna (116 bpm).

23.5.3.2. Recuperative Music

When the referee’s final whistle sounds or the coach “calls it a day”, athletes have made their last big effort and the best they can do is focus on optimizing their recovery until the next time they enter the fray. Interestingly, there are also musical solutions for the enhancement of recovery and recuperation.

Recuperative music of the slow, sedative variety can accelerate decreases of physiological arousal toward an athlete’s resting values. It can also have important psychological effects, as it increases feelings of wellbeing, calmness, and revitalization (Karageorghis, Bruce et al., 2018). Moreover, it reduces stress and might disrupt athletes’ negative rumination. Being able to relax and detach from sport is relevant to recovery (Balk & Englert, 2020). Hence, recuperative music might also enhance athletes’ long-term wellbeing and motivation. A recuperative playlist for use directly after sporting activity should ideally have a slow tempo that descends from track to track (~90 bpm–~60 bpm; see Table 23.1).

Table 23.1. A Selection of Music Tracks for Recovery

Most athletes will combine their sport with full-time work or study, and struggle to find sufficient time for rest and recuperation in their crowded schedules. Late-evening training sessions or competitions and spending time in unfamiliar surroundings for away fixtures can make it difficult for athletes to sleep. Relaxing music can be part of a structured bedtime routine that promotes a restful night’s sleep. Many types of soft, sedative, and slow music can work, such as Erik Satie’s Gymnopédies (various tempi) or Enya’s A Day Without Rain (71b pm).