27.1: Self-Efficacy

One factor that consistently distinguishes more successful athletes from less successful ones is self-efficacy. Self-efficacy refers to “beliefs in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments” (Bandura, 1997. p. 3). Practically speaking, self-efficacy is analogous to a task specific form of confidence, but for clarity and consistency, we will only use the term self-efficacy in this chapter. Self-efficacy does not simply reflect the skills a person has, but rather it represents one’s beliefs about what can be accomplished with those skills. This distinction explains how similarly skilled athletes in the same situation, or the same individual under different conditions, can perform at different levels. Self-efficacy beliefs are task specific and vary across time and circumstance. Accordingly, a baseball player may have high self-efficacy for hitting a fastball, but low self-efficacy for fielding a groundball. Likewise, an athlete can be highly confident one day, but experience significant self-doubts another day. These beliefs are generally referred to as task self-efficacy in the research literature because they involved beliefs about performing a particular task rather than beliefs about one’s capability to cope with a situation or to learn a new skill (Feltz et al., 2008). Self-efficacy beliefs are important because they influence one’s affect (e.g., anxiety, depression), behavior (e.g., task choice, effort, persistence), and cognitions (e.g., goals, attributions). Athletes with high self-efficacy choose demanding tasks, set challenging goals, invest a great deal of effort in pursuit of those goals, and persist in the face of failure and obstacles. In situations where an athlete has the requisite skills and motivation,efficacy beliefs play a central role in determining the success of a performance (Bandura, 1997).

27.1.1. Sources of Self-Efficacy

Self-efficacy judgments are formed by complex cognitive processes involving the selection, interpretation, and integration of information derived from six different sources: performance accomplishments, vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion, physiological arousal, emotional states, and imaginal experiences (Feltz et al., 2008). Self-efficacy beliefs are the mediating mechanism between these sources and affect, behavior, and cognitions.

27.1.1.1. Performance Accomplishments

Performance accomplishments, or enactive experiences, are based on an individual’s past performances. These previous performance experiences provide an authentic evaluation of a person's capabilities and are therefore considered to be the most powerful source of efficacy information. Efficacy beliefs are enhanced by experiences that are perceived as successful, whereas perceived failures undermine efficacy beliefs. For example, a runner who perceives her past few races and practices as successful will have higher self-efficacy for the upcoming race than she would if she had viewed those recent performances as unsuccessful. However, the impact of enactive mastery experiences on self-efficacy is influenced by several factors, such as task difficulty(e.g., a more difficult race), effort expenditure (e.g., knowing one could have tried harder), causal attributions (e.g., viewing mistakes as a learning experience rather than a physical limitation), and temporal pattern of success and failure (e.g., occasional early failures, but improving times; Feltz et al., 2008). Research has consistently reported past performance to be a significant source of self-efficacy on a wide variety of sports skills (see Feltz et al., 2008 for a review).

27.1.1.2. Vicarious Experiences

Vicarious experiences (e.g., observational learning, modeling, demonstration) shape efficacy beliefs by observing and comparing oneself to other people. This source influences self-efficacy by providing opportunities for social comparison, conveying task relevant information, and demonstrating effective learning and coping strategies (Bandura, 1997). For instance, a young volleyball player may observe a teammate of similar ability masterfully executing a jump serve, a skill the athlete has never herself attempted before. By watching her teammate, she gains information about the basic technique and timing of the skill, identifies strategies to overcome common errors, and begins to view this as a challenging, yet achievable skill. The influence of vicarious experience on self-efficacy depends on various factors, such as observer experience, model competence, and observer or model similarities. Self-efficacy beliefs based on vicarious information tend to be weaker and more susceptible to change than those formed through performance accomplishments. However, vicarious experiences can be an especially influential source of efficacy information on novel skills where the athlete lacks significant experience. Likewise, this is a crucial source of information for tasks lacking clear, objective indicators of competency in which an individual’s performance can only be gauged in comparison to the performance of others (Bandura, 1997).

27.1.1.3. Verbal Persuasion

Verbal persuasion (e.g., evaluative feedback, others’ expectations, self-talk) involves direct expressions of support in a person’s capabilities. For example, a coach telling a player “you got this, just like in practice” is using verbal persuasion to make the athlete feel more efficacious. Verbal persuasion is most effective when given by a knowledgeable, credible, trustworthy source. Some caution is necessary, as verbal persuasion has greater power to sow seeds of doubt than it does to build self-efficacy. By itself, verbal persuasion usually produces weak efficacy beliefs that are easily undermined by perceived failures or poor performances. Verbal persuasion is most effective when used in conjunction with other sources of ability information, such as providing corrective performance feedback (Bandura, 1997).

27.1.1.4. Physiological States

Interpretation of one’s physiological states (e.g., arousal, fatigue, and pain) can also inform self-efficacy beliefs.An athlete who believes that a racing heartbeat and sweaty palms signify fear, distress, or self-doubt, will likely experience a decrease in self-efficacy. Conversely, the athlete will likely feel more efficacious if those same symptoms are viewed as signs of being “psyched up” and ready for action. Additionally, athletes may read some physiological states as a sign of their physical fitness to boost or lessen their efforts during grueling performances. Accordingly, it is not the actual physiological states that matter, but rather how the athlete views or interprets those states. While this efficacy source is generally weaker than past performance accomplishments, Bandura suggests that physiological states are particularly salient in domains that involve physical accomplishments, such as sport (Bandura, 1997).

27.1.1.5. Emotional States

Self-efficacy beliefs are also influenced by emotional states, such as mood and emotional arousal. As with physiological states, an individual’s interpretation of the emotional state determines its influence on self-efficacy. A positive emotional state tends to enhance efficacy beliefs, whereas a negative emotional state often decreases self-efficacy. Likewise, intense emotional states have a greater impact on efficacy beliefs than do weaker states. Emotional states can also bias efficacy judgments, particularly when there is a mismatch between the emotional state and performance. For instance, athletes who fail while in a positive emotional state tend to overestimate their abilities. Conversely, success that is achieved while in a negative emotional state often leads individuals to underestimate their capabilities (Bandura, 1997).

27.1.1.6. Imaginal Experiences

Efficacy information can also come from imaginal experiences, referred to by Bandura as cognitive self-modeling or cognitive enactment. This source involves visualizing oneself (or another person) performing a task. This simulated experience allows athletes to rehearse an endless array of skills, situations, and outcomes, such as shooting free throws, executing set plays, and preparing for various end of the game scenarios. For example, a young tennis player can envision themselves hitting an ace to win the Wimbledon title. Visualizing successful performance and effective mastery strategies increase efficacy beliefs, whereas images of failure usually result in a decreased sense of self-efficacy (Feltz et al., 2008).

Photo by Allan Mas from Pexels

27.1.2. Research on Self-Efficacy in Sport

27.1.2.1. Influence of Self-Efficacy on Performance

Not surprisingly, much of the research on self-efficacy in sport has focused on performance. One study involving elite male ski jumpers found that self-efficacy was significantly related to performance in competition. Specifically, athletes with high self-efficacy finished the competitive season with a higher World Cup ranking and performed better on the first day of a multiday competition (Sklett et al., 2018). Self-efficacy has consistently been shown to have a positive effect on performance in a wide array of team and individual sports (see Feltz et al., 2008 for a review). In fact, a meta-analysis reported that self-efficacy accounted for approximately 16% of the variance in sport performance (Moritz et al.,& Mack, 2000).

It is important to understand that the relationship between efficacy beliefs and performance is reciprocal. In this manner, high self-efficacy leads to improved performance, which then enhances efficacy beliefs. Numerous studies have examined and confirmed the reciprocal relationship between efficacy beliefs and performance using path analytic techniques (see Feltz et al., 2008 for a review).

27.1.2.2. Influence of Self-Efficacy on Affect, Behavior, and Cognition

In addition to performance, self-efficacy beliefs influence a wide array of emotions, behaviors, and thought patterns. In a qualitative study, researchers interviewed 12 professional golfers who reported that self-efficacy influenced their thought patterns and emotional responses. For example, one golfer remarked “When I am feeling more confident, I am more patient and I am more forgiving. A bad shot doesn't stress me out” (Valiante & Morris, 2013). Likewise, athletes who were efficacious in their self-regulation skills achieved emotional states that more closely represented their desired state and reported using emotional regulation strategies more frequently and effectively than athletes with low self-efficacy (Friesen et al., 2019). Research also suggests that, when given unambiguous performance feedback, people with high self-efficacy persist longer than those with low efficacy beliefs (Halper & Vancouver, 2016). Moreover, athletes must cope with various stressors while competing and self-efficacy has been shown to increase coping effectiveness (Nicholls et al., 2010). Furthermore, self-efficacy has also been linked to effective cognitive functioning, such as making better, faster decisions (Hepler, 2016).

27.1.2.3. Role of Self-Efficacy in Sport Injury and Rehabilitation

An emerging area of study has focused on the role of self-efficacy in sport injury and rehabilitation. For instance, a survey of 297 athletes examined the role of psychological factors in sport injury. Researchers concluded that self-efficacy played a central role in the likelihood of injury occurrence, as well as recovery from injury (Olmedilla et al., 2018). Likewise, self-efficacy has been found to affect athletes’ intention to report a sports related concussion. Athletes with high reporting self-efficacy were 3.15 times more likely to self-report a concussion than those with lower efficacy beliefs (Carpenter et al., 2020). In regards to rehabilitation, a clinical review of studies involving post-ACL reconstructive surgery patients concluded that knee self-efficacy (i.e., self-efficacy in their ability to perform various daily, sport/leisure, and physical activities as well as self-efficacy in their future knee function) was a significant predictor of adherence to rehabilitation, physical activity level, and knee symptoms/function (Burland et al., 2019).

27.1.3. Enhancing Self-Efficacy in Sport

Self-efficacy beliefs are critical to successful functioning in sport; therefore, it is important to understand how to increase it. In the following section, we present a few efficacy enhancing techniques, but for a more comprehensive review, see Feltz et al. (2008).

27.1.3.1. Provide Successful Performance Experiences

One proven way to build self-efficacy is to provide athletes with opportunities to experience improvement, success, and mastery. For instance, tasks and skills should be presented and practiced in a logical progression based on difficulty (e.g., in basketball, players should practice easier layups before more challenging 3 point shots). Additionally, complex tasks should be broken down into parts thereby allowing athletes opportunities to experience mastery early in the learning process. Physical guidance, such as spotting in gymnastics, and using performance aids should also be incorporated, when appropriate (Feltz et al., 2008). In youth sports, rules and equipment modifications (i.e., body scaling), such as lowering a basketball hoop, using smaller rackets and lower compression balls in tennis, and playing on smaller softball fields, can be vital to affording children the opportunity to experience success in sport.

27.1.3.2. Give Effective Feedback and Encourage Positive Self-Talk

Verbal persuasion can also be used to increase self-efficacy beliefs. To be most effective, feedback should be believable, truthful, positive, and contingent on performance (Feltz et al., 2008). For instance, surrounding oneself with people who can provide praise, encouragement, and skill related feedback can help boost self-efficacy (Valiante & Morris, 2013). In sport, coaches can be an especially influential source of verbal persuasion and feedback. Previous research has shown that coaches’ behaviors and feedback have a significant impact on self-efficacy. Two types of feedback that have been shown to be effective at enhancing athletes’ efficacy beliefs are training/instruction and positive feedback (Donald et al., 2019). Self-talk is another form of verbal persuasion that can be used to increase self-efficacy. For instance, elite athletes report using self-talk to boost their sense of efficacy, particularly during performance struggles (Miles & Neil, 2013).

27.1.3.3. Seeing is Believing

Another effective efficacy building technique is imagery. Through imagery, individuals can see themselves mastering skills, achieving milestones, overcoming adversity, and coping effectively. Imagery can have both direct and indirect effects on self-efficacy beliefs (Feltz et al., 2008). Images of successful performance can directly increase feelings of efficaciousness. Indirectly, imaging success can improve performance and successful performance in turn enhances one’s sense of efficacy. Imagery based interventions have reported significant increases in self-efficacy, but type of imagery and experience level should be considered (Fazel & Fatemeh, 2018).

Learning Exercises

1. What is task self-efficacy?
2. Describe the importance of self-efficacy to performance in sport.
3. Design a series of progressive skills in the sport of your choosing that would build a novice athlete’s self-efficacy.