30.4: Applied Implications

The organizational stress research that we have highlighted in this chapter demonstrates that there are a range of complex individual and group differences that influence the prevalence of organizational stressors, and the extent to which the frequency, intensity, and duration of organizational stressors may be linked to various outcomes (e.g., burnout and performance). Some studies do appear to suggest that the outcomes of organizational stressors are not always negative when cognitive appraisals and coping attempts are also considered. From an applied perspective, this suggests that a one size fits all approach to developing organizational stress management interventions will simply not work, and that tailored interventions are clearly necessary. To this end, we briefly outline how organizational psychologists have recommended that interventions could be best developed and tested to optimize performers’ experiences in sport.

30.4.1. Organizational Stress Management

Organizational stress management has been defined as “any activity initiated by an organization, which focuses on reducing the presence of stressors or minimizing the negative outcomes associated with exposure to stressors” (Ivancevich et al., 1990, p. 252). Despite approximately 20 years of research to date on organizational stress in sport, interventions designed to tackle organizational stress are still lacking and so require development and evaluation to improve our understanding of what psychological programs might work and in what ways (Didymus & Fletcher, 2017b; Fletcher et al., 2006; Rumbold et al., 2012, 2018). This is needed to help sport psychology consultants draw on a stronger evidence base to support how they tailor psychological programs when working at multiple levels (e.g., individuals, teams, coaches, CEOs) of a sport organization.

Due to the limited number of organizational stress interventions that have been developed in sport, researchers have tended to draw parallels between the organizational psychology literature and the types of stress experienced within sport contexts. According to many organizational and work psychologists, the tailoring of specific organizational stress management interventions can typically be developed based on the purpose and target of the intervention (Cooper et al., 2001; Richardson & Rothstein, 2008). For example, organizational-level interventions could be developed where the purpose is to directly prevent or modify the organizational stressors that individuals encounter. This would involve targeting aspects of the environment or organizational structures that impact sport performers. Where stressors are unavoidable and impractical to reduce or modify, individual-level interventions could be developed where the purpose is to modify how individuals appraise, respond to, and cope with organizational stressors. This involves targeting specific individuals and groups that operate together in sport organizations. When considering the use of the OSI-SP questionnaire (Arnold et al., 2013) as a method to identify which stressors are most problematic and in need of intervention, Table 30.5presents an example of how organizational stress management interventions could be developed based on stressors encountered by sport performers, and the subsequent purpose and target of a stress management intervention (Cooper et al., 2001). Where organizational stressors can realistically be reduced in a proactive way (e.g., improving communication channels), then organizational-level interventions should be targeted towards modifying the organizational environment in which sport performers operate. However, where stressors cannot be removed easily (e.g., changing a sport’s rules and regulations), individual-level interventions targeted at modifying individuals’ appraisals, emotional responses and coping abilities are more appropriate (Richardson & Rothstein, 2008; Rumbold et al., 2018). In reality, a combination of both approaches may be required to successfully combat stress in sport organizations that is judged to be detrimental to well-being and performance.

Table 30.5. An Example Framework for Developing Organizational Stress Management Interventions in Sport

A key area in which organizational stress research needs to advance is the evaluation of organizational stress management interventions in sport. These interventions will need to be tailored with a view to either modifying the organizational environment in which individuals function, or helping sport performers and other stakeholders to respond and adapt more positively to the organizational environment (Rumbold et al., 2018). In the only intervention study in the context of organizational stress to date, Didymus and Fletcher (2017b) developed and evaluated the effects of a cognitive-behavioral intervention that was designed to modify sport performers’ appraisals of stressors and emotional responses. This intervention was conducted over 26 weeks with 4 high-level field hockey players and included 8 weeks of one-to-one sessions to educate players and facilitate acquisition of a cognitive restructuring technique. Using a concurrent, across-participants, multiple-baseline, single-case research design they found that threat and loss appraisals reduced during the intervention whilst challenge appraisals, pleasant emotions, and performance satisfaction increased throughout. Qualitative social validation data that were collected immediately post-intervention suggested that the changes in players’ appraisals of organizational stressors were meaningful to the participants, and data collected during a three-month follow-up suggested that the intervention effects had been retained.