2.3: Physical Fitness and Sport

Learning Objectives

• Analyze the positive and negative impacts of sports and physical education on lifelong physical activity habits, particularly during childhood and adolescence.
• Evaluate strategies for creating inclusive and supportive sports and PE environments that foster positive experiences, emphasizing personal growth, enjoyment, and skill development over competition.

Sports and physical education (PE) are critical components of fostering lifelong physical activity habits, particularly during childhood and adolescence. Research consistently shows that early involvement in sports and structured physical education programs promotes the development of essential motor skills, fitness levels, and positive attitudes toward physical activity. However, while sports and PE offer numerous benefits, negative experiences in these environments can also lead to long-term aversion to physical activity, demonstrating the need for inclusive, supportive, and positive experiences in these settings.

The Impact of Sports and Physical Education

Engagement in sports provides children and adolescents with opportunities to develop physical fitness, teamwork skills, discipline, and a sense of enjoyment related to physical activity. Involvement in organized sports, whether through school or community programs, is linked to higher levels of physical activity during adolescence and adulthood. A study by Côté, Baker, and Abernethy (2003) found that early sports participation, especially in diverse sports activities, helps children develop a broad range of motor skills and physical competencies, which in turn supports continued involvement in physical activity throughout life.

Sports also serve as a platform for building social connections and fostering a sense of belonging. Youth involved in team sports, such as soccer, basketball, or volleyball, often report higher levels of self-esteem and social competence, according to research by Fredricks and Eccles (2006). This sense of belonging and social reinforcement further encourages sustained participation in physical activity, as individuals come to associate movement with enjoyment and social interaction.  Longitudinally, studies show that those involved in multiple sports showed higher levels of physical activity later in life, likely due to the broader range of physical skills and the positive associations they developed with movement.  For instance, an analysis by Tammelin et al. (2003) demonstrated that individuals who participated in sports during adolescence were significantly more active in adulthood than their non-participating peers.

Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): Odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals for being active or very active vs inactive at age 31 years, according to the frequency of participation in sports after school hours at age 14 years. Results from multinomial logistic regression. (Copyright © 2003 American Journal of Preventive Medicine. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Physical education also plays a crucial role in promoting lifelong physical activity habits. In school settings, PE classes provide structured opportunities for students to engage in physical activity and learn fundamental movement skills. A longitudinal study by Trudeau and Shephard (2005) highlighted that students who participate in daily PE are more likely to maintain higher levels of physical activity as adults. PE programs, particularly those focused on developing a variety of skills rather than competition, offer students the opportunity to explore different types of movement, helping them identify activities they enjoy and are more likely to continue into adulthood.  In Finland, where physical education is compulsory throughout primary and secondary education, students are exposed to diverse forms of physical activity. A study by Jaakkola et al. (2013) found that this comprehensive PE approach correlates with higher physical activity levels among Finnish adults compared to countries with less structured PE programs. The variety of activities taught, ranging from team sports to individual pursuits like swimming and hiking, fosters a broad understanding of physical fitness and equips students with skills they can use in their adult lives.

Negative Experiences in Sports and Physical Education

While sports and physical education can foster positive physical activity habits, negative experiences in these settings can lead to long-lasting disengagement and aversion to physical activity. When sports or PE involve bullying, body shaming, or undue pressure to perform, the outcome may be a lifetime association of physical activity with discomfort or embarrassment, which reduces motivation for continued exercise. These early negative experiences can also damage self-confidence, diminish enjoyment, and contribute to a reluctance to participate in physical activity. Studies show that the impact of these negative experiences can extend well beyond the classroom or playing field, often influencing a person’s physical activity habits well into adulthood.

In PE classes, students may encounter situations that make physical activity feel more like a chore than a joy. For example, being picked last in team activities, feeling unskilled, or facing harsh criticism from peers or instructors can deeply impact a student’s view of physical fitness. Research by Mitchell, Gray, and Inchley (2015) found that students who reported feeling embarrassed or anxious in PE were less likely to engage in physical activity outside of school. These students often associated physical activity with stress and discomfort, leading to a reluctance to engage in exercise throughout their lives.  The feeling of inadequacy can also affect students’ confidence. For instance, a child who struggles with coordination and receives teasing from peers may develop a negative self-concept around physical abilities. This perception may carry into adulthood, where the individual may avoid fitness settings altogether, such as gyms, fitness classes, or outdoor activities, due to lingering feelings of embarrassment.

The Impact of Bullying and Exclusion in Sports and PE

For many young people, sports and PE are supposed to be environments of growth and socialization. However, bullying and social exclusion can quickly change that. Research by Cardinal et al. (2013) highlights how negative social interactions in physical activity settings, such as being picked last or feeling inadequate, significantly lower the likelihood of continued physical activity later in life. These experiences create a sense of “otherness,” where children who struggle or are less skilled in physical activity may feel isolated and disconnected. This sense of exclusion often fosters a negative self-image, leading to an avoidance of physical activities that could otherwise be enjoyable.

For example, body shaming can profoundly affect a child’s relationship with exercise. When children are teased or shamed about their weight, size, or physical abilities, they may feel a strong reluctance to participate in physical activities, fearing judgment or ridicule. These feelings of self-consciousness can persist, making it difficult to embrace physical activity later in life. For instance, research by Beltrán-Carrillo et al. (2012) found that adolescents who experienced body shaming in PE were significantly more likely to report feelings of anxiety around exercise, often leading to physical inactivity as adults.

Vulnerability and Emotional Trauma

Unfortunately, scandals in sports reveal the unsettling reality faced by youth athletes, where trusted authority figures exploit their positions to harm vulnerable individuals under the guise of mentorship. The trauma endured by survivors underscores the urgent need for robust protections and accountability within sports organizations to create safe and supportive environments.  One high-profile example is the USA Gymnastics scandal involving former team doctor Larry Nassar. Nassar, a physician associated with USA Gymnastics and Michigan State University, was convicted of sexually abusing hundreds of young gymnasts while masquerading as a trusted medical professional. Over many years, he manipulated athletes and their families into believing his invasive procedures were legitimate and necessary for their health. This deception allowed him to gain their trust, silencing many victims who doubted their experiences and feared retaliation.

Nassar's abuse spanned decades, affecting athletes from grassroots levels to Olympic champions. Survivors reported profound psychological and emotional damage, worsened by a system that ignored or dismissed their complaints. Feelings of shame, betrayal, and isolation became common as they grappled with violations from someone they deeply trusted. The lasting impact on their self-esteem led many to struggle with anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress, transforming gymnastics from a joyful pursuit into a painful reminder of their trauma. 

Similarly, the Penn State football scandal, involving former assistant coach Jerry Sandusky, illustrates the abuse of power in sports environments. Sandusky, a prominent figure within Penn State's football program, was accused of sexually abusing numerous young boys over several years. Many victims were affiliated with The Second Mile, a charitable organization he founded for at-risk youth. Under the guise of mentorship, Sandusky exploited his authority to groom and abuse these children, often inviting them to football facilities to gain their trust.  The psychological toll on Sandusky's survivors is well-documented. Many grappled with feelings of shame, guilt, and betrayal from someone they looked up to. This abuse often resulted in lasting trauma, isolation, and emotional scars, impeding their ability to form healthy relationships with sports and physical activity. For many, what was once a source of joy became synonymous with pain and abuse, complicating their relationship with athletics for years to come.

As evidenced in each of these cases, the structure of sports organizations profoundly affected athlete safety and welfare.  Sandusky's abuse persisted due to failures to report and investigate early warnings with evidence later revealing that Penn State officials, including head coach Joe Paterno, were aware of Sandusky's inappropriate behavior but did not take necessary actions to protect the victims or prevent further abuse.  Similarly, systemic failures occured within USA Gymnastics and Michigan State University, where warning signs and complaints were overlooked or suppressed in favor of protecting institutional reputations. This culture of silence and control enabled Nassar to continue his abuse unchecked, highlighting the dire consequences of inadequate safeguards in sports organizations.

Overbearing Pressure and Burnout

For some children, high-pressure environments in competitive sports can lead to burnout and disinterest in physical activity. Young athletes who face excessive demands to win or perform at a certain level often experience high levels of stress and anxiety. When winning is prioritized over enjoyment, sports can become a source of dread rather than excitement. Research by Theeboom, Knop, and Weiss (1995) revealed that young athletes who experience high pressure to perform often withdraw from sports entirely. In extreme cases, such as in competitive youth gymnastics, tennis, or swimming, young athletes have reported feeling exhausted, mentally drained, and even resentful of the sports they once loved.

A significant factor contributing to this high-pressure environment is parental pressure. Many young athletes feel compelled to meet their parents' expectations, whether these are expressed directly or felt implicitly. This pressure can manifest as an overwhelming need to achieve success, often leading children to prioritize performance over their own enjoyment and well-being. When parents emphasize winning and success, young athletes may internalize these expectations, resulting in increased anxiety and self-doubt.  The toll of parental pressure is particularly evident in cases where young athletes specialize in a single sport early on. Research by sports psychologist Rainer Martens (2012) indicates that children who focus intensely on one sport often face higher dropout rates. This early specialization can lead to a lack of balance in their athletic development, stifling their enthusiasm for the sport and leaving them feeling burnt out.

Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): Theoretical model of disordered eating development in athletes proposed by Petrie and Greenleaf (2007). (Copyright © 2021 Stoyel, Delderfield, Shanmuganathan-Felton, Stoyel and Serpell.)

The emotional consequences of high pressure sport participation can lead to serious mental health issues. Athletes who are constantly striving to meet high expectations may experience feelings of shame, guilt, and inadequacy when they fail to perform at the desired level. This internal struggle can create a negative association with sports, transforming what should be a fun and rewarding experience into a source of stress and anxiety. Increased pressure to conform to idealized body standards can also contribute to higher rates of body dysmorphia, exercise anorexia, and disordered eating behaviors among young athletes. Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\) depicts findings from the research that indicates that competitive athletes, particularly in sports that emphasize appearance or weight categories, are at an elevated risk for developing these conditions, leading to harmful physical and psychological outcomes (Stoyel, et al, 2021). Such issues can further exacerbate feelings of inadequacy, creating a vicious cycle that detracts from both their performance and overall well-being.

Addressing Negative Experiences to Promote Positive Outcomes

Creating positive, inclusive, and supportive environments in both sports and physical education (PE) is essential for nurturing healthy, lifelong habits regarding physical activity. Programs that emphasize skill development, personal improvement, and enjoyment over competition can significantly enhance children's confidence and foster a love for movement. Research by Morgan and Hansen (2008) shows that when PE teachers cultivate a supportive atmosphere, students are more likely to enjoy physical activity, leading to greater participation both in school and in their communities.

In the realm of sports, coaches and instructors wield significant influence over athletes' experiences. The work of Fraser-Thomas, Côté, and Deakin (2005) underscores the importance of coaching approaches that focus on personal growth, skill enhancement, and team spirit rather than solely on winning. By implementing positive coaching practices—such as providing encouragement, nurturing a sense of belonging, and alleviating performance pressure—coaches can foster higher retention rates and instill positive, long-lasting attitudes towards physical activity in their athletes. 

To create these enriching experiences, it is vital that educators, coaches, and policymakers collaborate to establish environments that prioritize enjoyment, growth, and mutual respect. Addressing and preventing negative experiences in sports and PE is crucial for cultivating lifelong relationships with physical activity. When we encourage inclusive settings where participants of all skill levels feel valued and welcomed, we significantly decrease the chances of long-term disengagement from physical activity.  Educational institutions and sports organizations can implement several best practices to promote positive experiences, including:

• Establishing anti-bullying policies tailored specifically for PE and sports environments.
• Providing training for instructors and coaches to ensure they support athletes of all skill levels equally.
• Fostering a culture that emphasizes personal improvement and enjoyment over competition.
• Encouraging self-paced and cooperative physical activities.

When young people engage in positive and inclusive play and physical activities, they are far more likely to remain active throughout their lives. In contrast, high-pressure environments or negative social experiences can create lasting associations between physical activity and discomfort, which can hinder their ability to enjoy the many benefits that movement offers. By prioritizing supportive and nurturing environments, we can help lay the groundwork for a healthier, more active generation that not only values physical activity but also cherishes the joy of movement.

Note

Sports and physical education are vital in shaping physical activity habits across the lifespan. When experienced positively, they provide the foundation for lifelong engagement in physical activity, promote physical and social development, and foster a sense of enjoyment in movement. However, negative experiences in these settings can lead to long-term avoidance of physical activity, highlighting the need for inclusive and supportive environments in both sports and PE classes.

REFERENCES:

Beltrán-Carrillo, V. J., Devís-Devís, J., Peiró-Velert, C., & Brown, D. H. K. (2012). When Physical Activity Participation Promotes Inactivity: Negative Experiences of Spanish Adolescents in Physical Education and Sport. Youth & Society, 44(1), 3-27. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X10388262

Cardinal, Bradley & Yan, Zi & Cardinal, Marita. (2013). Negative Experiences in Physical Education and Sport: How Much Do They Affect Physical Activity Participation Later in Life?. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance. 84. 49-53. 10.1080/07303084.2013.767736. 

Cote, J., Baker, J., & Abernethy, B. (2003). From play to practice: A developmental framework for the acquisition of expertise in team sport. In J. Starkes, & K. A. Ericsson (Eds.), Recent advances in research on sport expertise (pp. 89-114). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Fraser-Thomas, J. L., Côté, J., & Deakin, J. (2005). Youth sport programs: an avenue to foster positive youth development. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 10(1), 19–40. https://doi.org/10.1080/1740898042000334890

Fredricks, J. A., & Eccles, J. S. (2006). Is extracurricular participation associated with beneficial outcomes? Concurrent and longitudinal relations. Developmental Psychology, 42(4), 698–713. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.42.4.698

Jaakkola, T., Washington, T., & Yli-Piipari, S. (2013). The association between motivation in school physical education and self-reported physical activity during Finnish junior high school: A self-determination theory approach. European Physical Education Review, 19(1), 127-141. https://doi.org/10.1177/1356336X12465514

Mitchell, F., Gray, S., & Inchley, J. (2013). ‘This choice thing really works … ’ Changes in experiences and engagement of adolescent girls in physical education classes, during a school-based physical activity programme. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 20(6), 593–611. https://doi.org/10.1080/17408989.2013.837433

Morgan, P. J., & Hansen, V. (2008). Physical education in primary schools: Classroom teachers’ perceptions of benefits and outcomes. Health Education Journal, 67(3), 196-207. https://doi.org/10.1177/0017896908094637

Petrie T. A., Greenleaf C., Reel J., Carter J. (2009a). Personality and psychological factors as predictors of disordered eating among female collegiate athletes. Eat. Disord. J. Treat. Prev. 17, 302–321. 10.1080/10640260902991160

Stoyel, H., Delderfield, R., Shanmuganathan-Felton, V., Stoyel, A., & Serpell, L. (2021). A Qualitative Exploration of Sport and Social Pressures on Elite Athletes in Relation to Disordered Eating. Frontiers in psychology, 12, 633490. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.633490

Tammelin, T., Näyhä, S., Hills, A. P., & Järvelin, M. R. (2003). Adolescent participation in sports and adult physical activity. American journal of preventive medicine, 24(1), 22–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0749-3797(02)00575-5

Theeboom, M., De Knop, P., & Weiss, M. R. (1995). Motivational climate, psychological responses, and motor skill development in children’s sport: A field-based intervention study. Journal of Sport and Exercise psychology, 17(3), 294-311.

Trudeau, F., & Shephard, R. J. (2005). Contribution of school programmes to physical activity levels and attitudes in children and adults. Sports medicine (Auckland, N.Z.), 35(2), 89–105. https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200535020-00001