3.2: Ethics of Competition and Sportsmanship

Learning Objectives

• Explain the core principles of sportsmanship, including fair play, respect, and integrity, and discuss how these principles shape ethical behavior in athletic competition.
• Analyze the role of international ethical frameworks in sports for promoting fairness, responsibility, and transparency within the sporting community.

The Inherent Value of Competition

Competition in sport holds inherent value that extends beyond winning or losing, focusing on the process of striving and the virtues developed in pursuit of excellence. Philosophers argue that competition, when engaged in ethically, becomes a means of self-discovery and growth, challenging individuals to test their limits, refine their skills, and build resilience. Unlike outcomes-driven activities, sport encourages an appreciation for the experience itself—the challenge of play and the learning that comes from facing worthy opponents. In this sense, competition can be viewed as a mutual quest for excellence, where athletes push each other to perform at their best. 

From this perspective, competition serves as a collaborative activity as much as it is a contest, because athletes share a respect for the rules and the spirit of the game. This shared respect creates a unique camaraderie among competitors, fostering virtues such as fairness, integrity, and perseverance. By focusing on the process rather than solely the outcome, athletes cultivate a mindset that values improvement, persistence, and respect for others—qualities that have intrinsic worth both on and off the field. Philosopher David Shields, for instance, argues that this emphasis on striving allows sport to become a "moral laboratory," where ethical decision-making and character are constantly tested. In this light, competition can be seen as not merely a way to crown a victor but as an enriching journey that honors the human capacity for dedication, discipline, and personal growth.

The Heart of Sportsmanship

Historically, philosophers have explored the deeper meanings and implications of physical activity, particularly focusing on the nature of competition and ethical considerations in sportsmanship. For instance, Bernard Suits, in "The Grasshopper: Games, Life and Utopia," introduces the concept of the "lusory attitude," which involves the voluntary acceptance of unnecessary obstacles, a central idea in the philosophy of games and sports.

At the core of sportsmanship is the principle of fair play, which dictates adherence to game rules and regulations, ensuring equal opportunities for success. Fair play extends beyond rule compliance, encompassing honesty, transparency, and equity. Athletes who prioritize fair play uphold integrity over victory, respecting opponents and the spirit of the game. Fair play fosters ethical conduct in sports, promoting integrity, respect, and equality among competitors (Smith & Stewart, 2017). A 2015 study by Waegeneer using the Factorial Survey Method found that athletes' perceptions of fair play were influenced by specific actions, match levels, and the presence of an ethical code, with variations based on the observer's gender.

Sportsmanship requires participants to demonstrate respect towards opponents, teammates, officials, and the game itself. Respect entails acknowledging the dignity and worth of others, regardless of differences in skill, background, or affiliation. Athletes who embody respect exhibit humility in victory, graciousness in defeat, and courtesy towards all stakeholders involved in the sporting event.  A number of studies have explored the significance of respect in fostering sportsmanship, highlighting how respect contributes to positive interpersonal relationships, teamwork, and overall ethical conduct in sports (Abad Robles et al, 2021, Vargas-Mendoza, 2018). Athletes who prioritize respect exhibit behaviors that uphold the values of sportsmanship, promoting a culture of fairness, inclusivity, and mutual regard.

Integrity, encompassing honesty, sincerity, and moral uprightness, is fundamental in sportsmanship. Athletes with integrity adhere to ethical standards on and off the field, avoiding cheating, deception, or unethical behavior. Integrity requires consistency between actions and values, reinforcing credibility and trust within the sporting community. A systematic review by Agnew et al. (2017) found that integrity, demonstrated through equity, fairness, honorable conduct, and competitive spirit, is foundational for moral behavior in athletics, shaping athletes' character and conduct.

Sportsmanship, grounded in fair play, respect, and integrity, shapes the ethos of athletic competition. By upholding these principles, athletes foster a culture of fairness, mutual respect, and integrity within the sporting community. Athletes have the responsibility to embody these ethical ideals, creating an environment where integrity triumphs over victory, and enriching the spirit of sport.

Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): In a National survey conducted of over 17,000 officials across the US, this chart reveals that sportsmanship is worst in Competitive youth sports and that parents are perceived to be the biggest contributing factor. (2020; Referee.com)

Upholding Ethical Principles in Sportsmanship

As outlined above, sportsmanship is a cornerstone of athletic competition rooted in the idea of healthy competition, sportsmanship fosters camaraderie, mutual respect, and personal growth.  The International Olympic Committee (IOC) is an example of how sports and philosophy intersect, underscoring the notion that sports are not just physical activities but also moral and ethical endeavors that reflect broader societal values and philosophical commitments.  The mission of the IOC is focused on supporting and promoting ethics and good governance in sport.  To obtain this mission, the group has established a Code of Ethics demonstrating how ethical considerations and philosophical values can guide behavior and decision-making in athletic contexts:

Promotion of Fair Play: Fair play is central to the spirit of sportsmanship. It involves not only respecting the rules but also embracing the true essence of competition: striving to bring out the best in oneself and one’s opponents. Fair play encourages athletes to seek challenging opponents close to their ability level and to approach competition as an opportunity for mutual growth and respect.  The 2020 Tokyo Olympics displayed a powerful example of this when high jumper athletes Mutaz Essa Barshim of Qatar and Gianmarco Tamberi of Italy were faced with a tie for the gold medal. Instead of continuing the competition to determine a sole winner, Barshim asked the officials if they could both share the gold. This act of sportsmanship demonstrated the spirit of fair play and mutual respect, putting camaraderie above personal gain and competition. This decision resonated with global audiences and exemplified the ethical value of integrity, emphasizing shared achievement over individual victory.

Integrity and Following the Rules of Sport: Integrity in sports is rooted in the unwavering commitment to following the established rules, which serve as the foundation for fair competition. These rules are crucial in shaping the context of competition, making it meaningful and structured. Cheating, on the other hand, fundamentally alters and destroys the essence of sport, violating the legitimacy of results and the spirit of the game. By engaging in dishonest practices, athletes not only jeopardize their own integrity but also undermine the respect and trust that are essential between competitors. True integrity requires athletes to honor their opponents, recognizing them as partners in the pursuit of excellence. Competing fairly upholds the principle that an athlete’s character is reflected not just in the final score but in the way they conduct themselves on and off the field.  The case of Lance Armstrong in professional cycling serves as a stark illustration of this principle. Armstrong, once celebrated as a champion for his seven Tour de France victories, was later found to have engaged in systematic doping. His actions not only cheated his competitors but also shattered the trust in the sport itself. The revelations about his use of performance-enhancing drugs tarnished his legacy and led to the stripping of his titles, demonstrating how cheating destroys the legitimacy of achievements and undermines the integrity of sport.

Respect for Universal Values: The Code advocates for respect for human dignity, non-discrimination, and solidarity, which are core philosophical tenets found in human rights and moral philosophy. This aligns with the philosophical idea that all individuals deserve equal respect and consideration, regardless of their background, race, gender, or nationality.  In 2019, the U.S. Women’s National Soccer Team (USWNT) brought attention to gender inequality by filing a lawsuit against the U.S. Soccer Federation for equal pay. Despite winning four World Cups and significantly boosting viewership and revenue, the women’s team was paid considerably less than the men’s team. Their fight for equal pay resonated globally, sparking discussions on gender equality across various sports. The USWNT’s stand highlights the value of respect for universal human dignity and equality, as their actions call for fair treatment and recognition regardless of gender. Their advocacy illustrates the ethical imperative in sports to honor diversity and demand respect and equal opportunities for all athletes.

Responsibility and Accountability: Ethical theories often stress the importance of responsibility and accountability. The IOC Code of Ethics requires athletes, coaches, and officials to act responsibly and be accountable for their actions, mirroring philosophical discussions about the importance of moral responsibility and the consequences of one’s actions.  Reflecting back on the USA gymnastics scandal discussed in the last chapter, in 2017, gymnast Simone Biles spoke publicly about her experiences with abuse by a trusted team doctor within USA Gymnastics. Biles’ courage, alongside other survivors, led to increased scrutiny of USA Gymnastics and the implementation of significant reforms aimed at protecting young athletes. This case illustrates the critical importance of accountability in sports organizations and the moral responsibility to safeguard athletes’ welfare.

Caring about Another's Safety and Well-being: The Code prioritizes the health, safety, and well-being of athletes, echoing the philosophical principle of beneficence, which emphasizes actions that contribute to the welfare of others. This highlights the ethical obligation to ensure that sports do not harm participants and that their well-being is protected.  Concussion protocols in American football briefly mentioned in the last section of this chapter provide a tangible example of the ethical commitment to athlete safety. The NFL, as well as high school and youth sports leagues, have adopted stringent concussion protocols that require medical evaluations and strict return-to-play policies for athletes with head injuries. By prioritizing health and well-being, these measures embody the principle of beneficence, as they are designed to protect players from long-term health risks associated with traumatic brain injuries. These protocols underscore the moral duty of sports organizations to safeguard their athletes’ physical health.

Transparency and Good Governance: The IOC Code of Ethics calls for transparency, good governance, and the fight against corruption. This resonates with philosophical discussions on political and organizational ethics, which advocate for transparency, accountability, and the ethical management of institutions.  The scandal involving corruption within FIFA, the global governing body for soccer, led to extensive reforms aimed at promoting transparency and accountability. In 2015, revelations of bribery, vote-rigging, and financial mismanagement within FIFA resulted in the indictment of numerous high-ranking officials. This case prompted FIFA to implement governance reforms, including the creation of independent ethics committees and financial audits. These changes were necessary to improve accountability, reinforce public trust, and set a standard for ethical governance in the organization.

Human Development and Peace: The IOC’s commitment to promoting sports as a means for human development and peace connects with philosophical ideas about the role of activities and institutions in fostering social harmony, personal growth, and global peace.  The IOC’s Olympic Refugee Team, first introduced at the 2016 Rio Olympics, allows displaced athletes to compete on the world stage, promoting messages of inclusion, resilience, and hope. By providing these athletes with an opportunity to participate, the IOC demonstrates a commitment to global unity and peace, recognizing sports as a tool for bridging divides and fostering a sense of shared humanity. This initiative reflects the philosophical principle that sports can contribute to human flourishing and social cohesion, promoting values that transcend borders and build global solidarity.

Spectatorship and Violence in Sport

Philosophers have long examined the implications of spectatorship in sports, particularly how it can foster both community and rivalry, and, at times, incite violence. Spectatorship, by its nature, invites people to partake in the emotions of competition—both joy and disappointment—as if they themselves were on the field. This "vicarious engagement," as philosopher Allan Guttmann explores, brings out intense emotions in fans who identify closely with teams, players, or outcomes. While this emotional investment often enhances the sense of belonging and shared identity, it can also lead to the darker sides of fandom, including hostility toward opposing fans and aggressive behaviors during events (Guttmann, 1978). This dual nature of spectatorship prompts a necessary reflection on the ethical considerations involved in encouraging a spirit of sportsmanship not only among players but also among fans.

One explanation for violence in sports fandom is the social-psychological concept of "deindividuation," which occurs when individuals feel they lose their personal identity within a group and may act in ways they typically wouldn’t alone. Research has shown that individuals in large, emotionally charged crowds—like those at sports events—are more likely to act aggressively or engage in hostile chants (Stott et al., 2008). Historical incidents, such as the 1985 Heysel Stadium disaster during the European Cup final between Liverpool and Juventus in Brussels exemplifies how intense group identity and loyalty can escalate into aggression. Violence between English and Italian fans led to a wall collapse, tragically killing 39 people, mostly Juventus supporters, and injuring over 600 others. This tragedy prompted significant reforms in crowd management and safety measures across European soccer. This perspective allows students to consider the ethical responsibilities of sports organizations, athletes, and fans in maintaining a positive and respectful environment, fostering sportsmanship that extends beyond players to include spectators as well.

From a philosophical standpoint, spectatorship also raises questions about the ethics of glorifying violence or aggression in sports. In certain sports, especially those like football, rugby, or mixed martial arts, aggression is often viewed as a natural part of the competition. Suits’ concept of the "lusory attitude," described above, can also be applied to sports fans, who may view aggression as an accepted part of the experience (Suits, 1978). Yet, when does this acceptance of risk become morally questionable? Should spectators support games that risk physical harm to athletes, and what responsibilities do they bear when their cheers may indirectly encourage risky or aggressive behaviors? Exploring these questions allows students to engage with the ethical lines between fair competition and harmful aggression.

The relationship between spectatorship and sportsmanship further illuminates the philosophical role of responsibility and mutual respect. When fans uphold a sense of fair play and respect for both teams, they contribute to a supportive environment that values the athletes’ well-being and integrity. An example of this is the "sportsmanship applauses" common in European soccer, where fans sometimes applaud an outstanding play from an opposing team, recognizing skill and effort regardless of rivalry. Such practices emphasize that sports are not solely about winning but about celebrating human excellence and resilience. This shift in perspective, from viewing sports as tribal competition to valuing them as shared human endeavors, reinforces the philosophy that spectators, like athletes, are ethically bound to uphold the spirit of the game.

Point of Reflection: The meaning of competition 

How does Bernard Suits' concept of the "lusory attitude" shape our understanding of competition? Can competition be valuable even if it doesn’t produce winners and losers, and what do we lose or gain in treating competition this way?

REFERENCES:

Abad Robles, M. T., Navarro Domínguez, B., Cerrada Nogales, J. A., & Giménez Fuentes-Guerra, F. J. (2021). The development of respect in young athletes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PloS one, 16(6), e0252643. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0252643

Agnew, D., Henderson, P., & Woods, C.T. (2017). Ethics, integrity and well-being in elite sport: A systematic review. The sport journal.

De Waegeneer, E. (2015). Fair play in sports organizations : effectiveness of ethical codes. Ghent University. Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Ghent, Belgium.

Guttmann, A. (1978). From ritual to record: The nature of modern sports. Columbia University Press.

Referee. (2020). The Largest Officiating Survey Ever: Unprecedented Data Collection Provides A Voice To The Officiating Industry. Referee. https://www.referee.com/17487-offici...something-say/

Stott, C., Hutchison, P., & Drury, J. (2008). "Hooliganism" at Euro2004: The social psychology of collective "disorder" at an international football tournament. European Journal of Social Psychology, 38(2), 368-383. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.449

Smith, J. R., & Stewart, L. E. (2017). Promoting fair play and sportsmanship in youth sports: A national survey of youth sports programs. Journal of Sport Management, 31(3), 285-300.

Suits, Bernard 1978/2005: The Grasshopper: Games, Life and Utopia. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. Repr. Peterborough, ON: Broadview Press, 2005.

Vargas-Mendoza, N., Fregoso-Aguilar, T., Madrigal-Santillán, E., Morales-González, Á., & Morales-González, J. A. (2018). Ethical Concerns in Sport: When the Will to Win Exceed the Spirit of Sport. Behavioral sciences (Basel, Switzerland), 8(9), 78. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs8090078