4.1: Sports and Our Global Society

Learning Objectives

• Analyze the role of sport as a cultural phenomenon by evaluating how sports serve as a vehicle for globalization and the implications this has on local cultures, economies, and gender equity in sports.
• Evaluate the impact of major international sporting events, such as the Olympics and World Cup, on global economies and cultural exchanges, considering both positive and negative consequences.

As previously discussed, sport is a form of play governed by a specific set of rules, often defined by conflict in which one opponent or team aims to overcome another, ultimately determining a winner and a loser. Sports encompass elements of play, work, and leisure, and in some cultures, they serve as a means of conflict resolution. This type of play creates a virtual world where participants can forge heroes and enemies, experience suffering and celebration, all without real-world consequences. Athletes and teams exist not only to compete but also to embody their identities and values. 

Sociologists of physical activity study these dynamics, examining how sport influences and is influenced by social structures, cultures, and relationships. Their goals include understanding the role of sport in society, exploring issues of equity, power, and identity, and analyzing the impact of social, economic, and political factors on participation and competition in sports. By investigating these aspects, sociologists seek to uncover how sport can both reflect and shape societal values, norms, and behaviors, fostering greater awareness of its significance beyond mere competition.

Sport and Globalization

It can be observed that over the decades, a sport has become a vehicle for driving the effects of globalization, the process by which businesses or other organizations develop international influence or start operating on an international scale. This process has effects on the environment, on culture, on political systems, on economic development and prosperity, and on human physical well-being in societies around the world.  International teams and leagues and the participation in mega-sporting events fuel a cornered market that strays away from the small community ideology of sport and turns it into an industry. The some of the largest and easily recognizable examples include the Olympics and the World Cup. These events have become so incredibly massive by following marketing and business strategies rather than merely investing in the thrilling splendor of professional competition.

Many strategies implemented by sports managers on the global scale originated in the United States — suggesting that the globalization of sport is rather an Americanization of the international industry. Sport as a market means that several large corporate entities have a share in the process of creating the global production. This includes the small group of mass global telecommunication networks, world renowned sports brands, transnational corporations, and international sports management firms. These groups determine the scheduling and productions of large global sporting events, take advantage of cheap overseas labor to produce sports equipment and apparel, promote certain leagues and teams internationally to sell merchandise and the franchises, and to control the careers of athletes centered around when and where they compete.

Lucie Thibault of Brock University mentions the diverse athlete origins that can be traced in professional leagues worldwide, the increase in the new participation in at international sports events by countries that had not participated before, and the increase in the number of athletes competing in sports that break many barriers of gender, religion, and climate all as positive implications of sports globalization. However, she also touches on the solidly negative truths of globalizing the sports industry. Thibault mentions the luring of athletes out of their homelands to compete for foreign countries, the overseas exploitation of third world peoples in the production of sportswear and equipment, and the ecological footprint of mega-sports events (Thibault, 2009).  In today's market “Media have the expertise and technical equipment to produce sport into a package that can easily be consumed by spectators” and cultures around the world take part. The direction of international mega-sport and the effect it has on global economies, culture, and environment may or not be taking a turn for the worst. Some may suggest that it is creating more harm and negative impact than what it creates positive. Surely this is not massively advertised, but that does not mean all of its effects do not exist. The Olympics, the World Cups, Paralympics, and the Commonwealth Games are only a few examples of major events that fuel this industry and will continually be produced by TNCs, global telecommunications, and major sportswear and equipment companies. Athletes, teams, and leagues will be controlled, showcased, and used to promote events and brands in an effort to fuel the perpetually massive profits created by this method of globalization.

Culture Sharing Through International Competition

The International competition provides a unique platform for social statements to be made. Radio, television, and streaming technology allow athletes on a world stage to communicate values directly to people all around the world. Similar to federation or league competitions, international competitions attract a large, sustained viewer base. However, international competitions have a larger global viewership. ‘Mega-events’, such as the Olympic Games, are “...important points of reference for processes of change and modernization within and between nation-states...”(Roche, 2002).

The Olympic Games in Mexico City, 1989 provided a platform for United States' Black athletes to draw attention to the continuing racism in the states. Tommie Smith and John Carlos, gold and bronze medalists respectively in the 200m, stood at the podium shoeless, in black socks and Smith in a black scarf. Each raised a black-gloved fist into the air, a symbol of both black power and black unity (BBC). The white silver medalist in the 200m, Peter Norman of Australia, showed solidarity with the cause, wearing an OPHR (Olympic Project for Human Rights) pin. Smith and Carlos were condemned by the International Olympic Committee and received death threats. Returning home, they were praised by the African-American community.

Sport Popularity around the World

Sport captures the heart of each culture differently, reflecting local values, histories, and even climates. In some regions, certain sports are embraced with almost religious fervor, while others are virtually unknown. While soccer reigns supreme across Europe, Africa, and Latin America, cricket holds an unmatched fanbase in South Asia, while ice hockey remains a core part of Canadian identity similar to sumo in Japan. Examining these diverse allegiances reveals much about the ways cultures connect through sport, offering insight into our globally varied sporting passions.

Soccer/Football

 Sports hold a variety of different meanings across cultures. Soccer originated in Europe and has been around for thousands of years. Some of the earliest forms have been documented as an after war ritual where instead of a ball they would use the head of an enemy. In a study of soccer in Brazil, Dr. Janet Lever finds that organized sports aid political unity and allegiance to the nation-state (Page, 2002). In Brazil, every city is home to at least one professional soccer team. Interestingly, different teams tend to represent different culture groups, such as different economic levels and ethnicities. This creates allegiances at a local level, but the team that represents a city in the national championships will have the support of all the people of that city, thus building political unity on a greater level. Having this firm support for the representation of teams gives people something to identify with. Their support for their team can be taken as giving support to their nation.This is even more so in World Cup championships when the entire country of Brazil units to support their country's official team. Brazilians fans like to boast about 'Penta' since they are the only country to win the World Cup five times; 1958, 1962, 1970, 1994 and 2002. Soccer unifies the country of Brazil, but it is important to note that sports do not always create unity. Sports bring out an aggressive and competitive side in all athletes. They also highlight inequalities, such as gender segregation between men and women which is addressed in other areas of this text.

In the Republic of Serbia, it is thought that playing soccer enhances qualities. These aspects include aggressiveness, competition, physical strength, coordination, teamwork, discipline, and speed. These are all qualities attributed to the male gender. It is a common practice for men to watch games together in their homes, in front of local stores, etc. Women are not welcomed at these gatherings and are often asked to leave before the game starts or asked not to come until the game is over. This male dominated aspect of Serbian culture parallels the gender segregation between men and women found in Brazil.  Another inequality that soccer highlights are the difference between the upper-class society and lower class society. Soccer was especially practiced by the poor throughout the 20th century. Many boys from lower socioeconomic communities dream of becoming the next Pele or Ronaldo and because of this, they promote the national soccer culture even more. Dreaming about soccer is a motivation for millions of children who want to escape from their poverty. In Brazilian life, it's not uncommon for soccer culture to have a bigger influence than politics or economics (Shultz, 2004).

Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\): Map showing the popularity of football around the world

American Football

American Football has many widely televised games that draw a large audience every year. These games include the Super Bowl by drawing in millions of television viewers each year in early February, and college football's multiple BCS (Bowl Championship Series) bowl games that occur around and on New Years Day (Morris, 2004).

The National Football League (NFL) is the organization where there are 32 professional teams all around the United States. The NFL is becoming more popular globally. In the 2008-09 NFL season, the New Orleans Saints and the San Diego Chargers played regular season game in London and has progressed into at least one internationally located game each year since. This was done to help make the NFL more global and expand the culture of the game. Football is a violent game, with hits at the professional level often characterized by two outstanding athletes running at full speed into one another with the sense of danger neutralized by the pads and helmet they wear for protection. The aggressive nature of football is a major contributor to its popularity, with toughness and perseverance as its chief virtues. However, scientific research revealing the health issues suffered by players later in life, including CTE and Dementia, has lead to concern about whether the negative impact of playing the game out ways the positives.

Baseball

 This universal sport has been the center of cultural life in the Dominican Republic, connecting Dominicans to one another, as well as connecting them to the rest of the Caribbean for over 100 years (Ruck, 1999). This small Caribbean island has been the home to many of the best players in Major League Baseball in the United States, where the major league is run and the world series is played. Major League Heroes such as Sammy Sosa, Pedro Martinez, and David Ortiz all excelled in this sport in the Dominican Republic in order to reach their ultimate goal of playing professionally in the United States. Since the Dominican Republic is an economically poor country,although David Ortiz and other players return to help promote those kids to help them live their dreams and show that they can use baseball to see other cultures while playing the game they love. little boys and teenagers alike work their entire lives to try to be the best baseball player that they can be. This constant competition is a great source of entertainment, which is why baseball games are a huge part of Dominican culture. Most women are forbidden to partake in this sport. This rule is not so much sexism as it is an attempt to keep women safe, as most Dominicans believe that baseball is a dangerous sport for women because of the hard ball that can be hit anywhere at any given moment. Although it is not a law that women cannot play baseball, they traditionally do not partake in this cultural pastime. For women, they created a sport called Softball,similar to baseball but with a bigger and softer ball. For men in the Dominican Republic, Baseball is not only a great hobby and way to relate to each other, it is also an opportunity to strive to become the best athletes they can possibly become. Baseball has been a great part of America and has help shape sports from history. As Asia first started to play the game of baseball, America came and took over a revolution (Klein, 1995).

Think back to the discussion of Spheres of Physical activity, in this case the sphere of self expression and the use of different types of gestures.  While symbols and language are used in a wide variety of sports, they are absolutely essential to the game of baseball. In a full nine inning game of baseball, there is almost never a moment of complete silence on the field. In American culture, certain gestures and hand motions are used by the 3^rd base coach to communicate a specific action for the batter to perform (Swing, bunt, take, etc.). Hand gestures and voice commands are used by players on the field to communicate position changes, the number of outs there are, and tips about where the batter typically hits the ball. The most important use of symbols and hand gestures in baseball comes from the catcher and are directed towards the pitcher. These gestures are an essential aspect of the game because they tell the pitcher what pitch he is throwing next (Curveball, fastball, slider, etc). Commands in baseball come from different members of the team (third base coach, first base coach, head coach, players, etc.) depending on the culture and the country the game is being played in. For example, in American culture hitting signs come from the third base coach, and catching signs come from the head coach (Chidster, 1996) Just as baseball can not be played without a ball or a bat, it can not be played without the use of communication, symbols, and gestures. In addition, baseball is mainstream sport in the United States dissimilar from the others such as American football or soccer, as baseball is played without a timer. This allows players to showcase their skill without having to worry about time management, making for tense displays of skill.

Basketball

Basketball is one of the most popular sports in the United States, with a rapidly growing global following. Its appeal spans both men and women, making it a significant part of the sports landscape both domestically and internationally.  The NBA, the largest professional basketball league in the U.S., plays a crucial role in promoting basketball worldwide. This year, the NBA plans to further its globalization efforts by sending 12 teams to play 10 games in various international cities, aiming to inspire more countries to develop their own basketball leagues and teams. 

The quest for equality in women’s sports has seen remarkable progress over the years, particularly with the establishment of the WNBA in 1997. Pioneers like Sheryl Swoopes, Cynthia Cooper, Lisa Leslie, Diana Taurasi, and Candace Parker helped elevate the league's popularity, with Swoopes and Cooper leading the Houston Comets to four consecutive championships, marking the league's first dynasty. Recently, the rise of stars like Caitlin Clark and Angel Reese has further transformed the landscape of women's basketball. Their electrifying performances in college basketball have captured national attention and inspired a new generation of athletes, highlighting the talent and competitiveness of women in the sport. Clark's exceptional shooting and playmaking, alongside Reese's dominant presence on the court, have not only brought increased viewership to women's basketball but also sparked conversations around equality and investment in women’s sports. The WNBA has experienced a surge in viewership, surpassing that of both the NHL and MLB, which speaks to the growing interest in women's basketball.  The impact of Title IX in gender equity in sports cannot be overstated, as it has paved the way for countless female athletes to receive scholarships and compete at the collegiate level.  Later in this chapter, the far reaching impacts of Title IX will be discusses in more detail.

Boxing

A sport that has old roots in combat, boxing is prevalent in most parts of the world, including the Americas, Europe and Asia. The origins of boxing are prehistoric, and the sport has evolved over many years with waxing and waning popularity. Within the United States, there are currently four major sanctioning bodies for the sport of boxing: the World Boxing Organization (WBO), International Boxing Organization (IBF), World Boxing Association (WBA), and the World Boxing Council (WBC). The popularity of boxing varies across countries due to its ties with the culture of that area. Examples of countries with a strong cultural connection to boxing include Mexico, Russia, and the United States, with a good majority of famous champions coming from these regions. However, many famous stars from the sport of professional boxing managed to become international icons across cultures, such as Mike Tyson, Muhammad Ali, and Roberto Duran to name a few. While the viewership of professional boxing has dwindled since the 2000s, amateur boxing is a sport that still remains very popular across cultures, seeing as it is an Olympic sport.

Gaming and Esports

Not traditionally seen as a sport due to it's lack of physical exertion, video games are becoming increasingly popular in the mainstream. Known as esports, they are a form of competition that is facilitated by on online device, usually played in the comfort of a home, but recently they are being hosted in arenas. Most commonly, esports take the form of organized, multiplayer video game competitions, particularly between professional players. Esports even have major events and competitions in developed countries, in which these gamers meet to contest their abilities against one another to win a cash prize. Esports have become most popular in The Americas, Asia, Europe, and most notably in South Korea. Esport prizes can exceed 10,000 for team play, and individual play around 6,000 dollars. Many of these tournaments are even covered by sport networks such as ESPN. Alongside cash rewards, players and teams are sponsored by companies in the same manner as Nascar Drivers, Pro Snowboarders and American Soccer Teams by companies such as Razer, Red Bull, Logitech, Geico, and Monster energy. Games such as Counterstrike, League of Legends, DoTa 2, Overwatch, PUBG, and Starcraft are the leading games played. More games are catching onto the competitive scene such as fighting games like Smash and Tekken.

Specifically within the scene of "Multiplayer Online Battle Arena" type games (MOBAs) such as League of Legends and DoTA 2 have lent themselves to practices similar to a traditional image of sports. The 2016 International tournament had a prize pool of $20,770,640.  The same year, the League of Legends World Tour was tuned in by more viewers than the Super Bowl of the same year. Communities around these types of games have coined the term 'E-Sports' (electronic sports), and have earned rights with the US government to grant sports visas to professional players. It is commonplace for players within MOBA communities to self identify their game as an E-sport, however, this opinion is not shared with the general public.

This is an industry however, with its fair share of hardships. In South Korea, it is not uncommon for aspiring professional gamer to train fourteen to sixteen hour days, and the handful of people who are successful earn substantially lower salaries than the national average.  In Korea, top professional players can make $35000-$40000 a year, however, players on smaller teams average between $9000 and $10000 a year. That being said, it is not uncommon for many esport players to flourish and have long, successful careers whether it is a team or individual. Additionally, pro players typically have long careers depending on age group and game type.  Chapter 9 will discuss the various careers in kinesiology that have begun to emerge from the esports industry.

Dance

Dance is both a sport and an art form worldwide, though interpretations of its purpose and value differ significantly across cultures. In the U.S., dance is often viewed as a form of artistic expression with an athletic component, yet it is not generally seen as a sport. Here, dancers across styles—ballet, hip-hop, jazz, or salsa—engage in rigorous training that parallels athletic discipline. Though sports figures like NFL players Lynn Swann and Herschel Walker have taken ballet to improve agility, control, and balance, dancers rarely receive the same recognition, pay, or fanfare as athletes, reflecting the culture's broader valuation of performance art.

In contrast, countries like Russia regard ballet as both an esteemed cultural institution and a highly disciplined profession, with audiences paying high prices to see ballet productions such as The Firebird. This illustrates a cultural view that equates dance with both athletic rigor and artistic mastery, creating a professional pathway that includes prestige and widespread support. Similarly, in Bahia, Brazil, Capoeira exemplifies how dance can serve as both an athletic competition and an expressive art form deeply rooted in history. Capoeira, which began as a method of self-defense disguised as dance by African slaves, remains both a national sport and a cultural ritual. Performed in a “roda” (circle) where pairs execute dance-like martial arts moves without contact, Capoeira is seen as a dynamic athletic display symbolizing resilience, heritage, and community strength. Dancers in Capoeira are akin to athletes, competing in events and sometimes traveling for matches with other groups. Such global perspectives reflect diverse valuations of dance as a discipline that transcends entertainment, seen as an art, a sport, and a mode of cultural expression. Meanwhile, Western societies, especially the U.S., often view dance as “just art,” underscoring how cultural perceptions shape the recognition and respect dancers receive and their representation as athletes. 

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