12.2.1: Who is Most Vulnerable?

Historically, African American workers were given the most hazardous jobs, and thus had higher risks of occupational injury and illness. More recently this vulnerability has shifted to immigrant workers, many of whom may be undocumented and may therefore be less likely to raise concerns about safety conditions in the workplace. They are also less likely to be represented by a union, which could advocate on their behalf for better wages and working conditions (Frumkin, 2016). Another growing vulnerable group are the participants in the so-called “gig economy” (Maryville University, 2023). Temporary workers, contract employees, and self-employed workers also face a lack of job security and other benefits that full-time employees have. Even when worker’s compensation is available, immigrant workers and those with low-wage jobs are less likely to file claims, perhaps because of the complicated process (Frumkin, 2016).

Unions have historically been, and continue to be powerful advocates of worker’s protections. While occupational fatalities have declined from about 38 per day in 1970 to only 15 per day in 2022, OSHA is a relatively small agency and employs one compliance officer for every 70,000 workers in the U.S. (OSHA, n.d.-a). A report published in 2021 found that unionized construction worksites are far safer than non-unionized sites - they have substantially fewer OSHA violations. Unions also advocate for higher wages and benefits, and provide “whistleblower” protections for workers to speak out about safety hazards without fear of retaliation from the employer (Manzo IV et al., 2021).