3.2: Modern Food Systems

Modern Food Systems

How does the food in our grocery stores get from the farm to the shelf? Many steps are involved for each food product, and the food industry includes a complex collective of businesses that touches on everything from crop cultivation to manufacturing and processing, from marketing and advertising to distribution and shipment to food regulation. In the United States, each step of the process is regulated by agencies that aim to ensure the health and safety of consumers.

A food system comprises the elements (environment, people, inputs, processes, infrastructures, institutions, etc.) and activities that relate to the production, processing, distribution, preparation, consumption, and disposal of food, and the outcomes of these activities, including not only nutritional and food security but also socioeconomic and environmental outcomes.¹ The milk industry, for example, includes everything from the farmers that raise livestock to the milking facility that extracts the product, to the processing company that pasteurizes milk and packages it into cartons, to the shipping company that delivers the product to stores, to the markets and groceries that stock and sell the product, to the advertising agency that touts the product to consumers. All of these elements and activities play a part in a very large system that is regulated by several agencies in the United States. The short video below shows some of the parts that make up the dairy food system in the United States.

How Milk Gets from Farm to Fridge

Video \(\PageIndex{1}\): How Milk Gets From Farm to Fridge - A short video on the food system for milk.² Source: [Dairy MAX]. (2014, June 27). How Milk Gets From Farm to Fridge [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0XSoTEcD_vQ&t=4s

Agencies that Regulate Modern Food Systems

To ensure food safety for consumers, modern food systems are required to follow regulations or rules enforced by different agencies. Each country has its own regulations for producing, packaging, and handling foods. Food regulatory agencies across the world work to protect the consumer and ensure the safety of our food. In the United States, food and drug regulations began in the late nineteenth century when state and local governments started to enact regulatory policies. In 1906, Congress passed the Pure Food and Drugs Act and the Meat Inspection Act in response to the use of poisonous preservatives and dyes in foods and unsanitary conditions in food processing plants. This act has been updated since 1906 but marked the beginning of the current US Food and Drug Administration (FDA).³

Today, food regulation in the United States is divided among different agencies that include the FDA, the US Department of Agriculture (USDA), and the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). It can be confusing to know which agency monitors and manages which regulatory practice. For example, the FDA oversees the safety of eggs when they’re in the shells, whereas the USDA is in charge of the eggs once they are out of their shells. Globally, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) specializes in fighting world hunger by conducting research and creating recommendations to improve global food systems for generations to come.

The Food and Drug Administration

Today, the FDA is responsible for regulating the safety of medical devices, drugs, foods, and cosmetics. Watch the video below to see what the FDA regulates and enforces.

What Does the FDA Do?

Video \(\PageIndex{2}\): A short video on the role of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.⁴ Source: [U.S. Food and Drug Administration]. (2022, October 31). What Does the FDA Do? [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1D8mOu6SyX4

With respect to food, the FDA enforces the safety of foods grown in the United States (domestic foods) and foods that are imported from other countries through its Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition. This part of the FDA is responsible for providing guidance for safely producing and handling foods, overseeing recalls of unsafe foods or supplements, inspecting farms and food production facilities to ensure safe food production, and conducting research and analyzing scientific information about food claims and food safety.⁵

The US Department of Agriculture

Headed by the Secretary of Agriculture, the USDA develops and executes federal policy on farming and food. This agency supports farmers and ranchers, protects natural resources, promotes trade, and seeks to end hunger in the United States and abroad. USDA's Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) ensures that the nation's meat, poultry, and processed egg supply is wholesome, safe, and properly labeled. The agency is responsible for the inspection of domestic products, imports, and exports; conducting risk assessments; and educating the public about the importance of food safety.⁶

The USDA is also responsible for providing a safety net for millions of Americans who are food insecure and for developing and promoting dietary guidance based on scientific evidence. The USDA works to increase food security and reduce hunger by providing children and low-income people access to food, a healthful diet, and nutrition education in a way that supports American agriculture and inspires public confidence. The USDA provides critical nutrition assistance through Food and Nutrition Service (FNS) programs that include child nutrition programs, the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), and emergency food assistance, among many other programs. The Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion (CNPP) is responsible for developing and promoting dietary guidance that links the best evidence-based scientific research to the nutrition needs of Americans.⁷

The Environmental Protection Agency

A third federal government agency, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), also plays a role in the regulation of food. The EPA works to protect human health and the environment. Founded in 1970, the agency conducts environmental assessment, education, research, and regulation to prevent pollution and protect natural resources. Under the Food Quality Protection Act (FQPA), the EPA must ensure that all pesticides used on food in the United States meet FQPA's stringent safety standard. FQPA requires an explicit determination that a pesticide’s use on food is safe for children.⁸

Food and Pesticides in the United States

Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): Agricultural field application.⁹ Source: "Tractor Fertilize Field Pesticide And Insecticide" by aqua.mech is licensed under CC BY 2.0.

How do the USDA, FDA, and EPA work together? The regulation of pesticides in our foods is a good example of how these agencies play different roles in keeping our foods safe. The USDA measures residue levels for hundreds of pesticides and their metabolites in fruits, vegetables, grains, meat, and dairy products from across the country and food imported from other countries. The results are published in annual pesticide residue reports, which include statistics on the number of pesticide residues detected, the number of residues exceeding the tolerance established by EPA, and the number of residues detected for which no tolerance has been established. The FDA  also collects data on pesticide residues in cooked food that may be a source of chemicals in human diets.⁸

Regulating Modern Food Systems: Food Preservation and Processing

Two important aspects of a food system are preservation and processing. Each provides for or protects consumers in different ways. Food preservation includes the handling or treating of food to prevent or slow down spoilage. Food processing involves transforming raw ingredients into packaged food, from fresh-baked goods to frozen dinners. This often involves the addition of food additives that are designed to improve the shelf-life, flavor, or look of foods. Although preservation and processing have numerous benefits, some concerns persist regarding the safety, nutrition, and sustainability of these aspects of modern food systems.

Food Preservation

Food preservation protects consumers from food spoilage, which leads to harmful or toxic food. Food spoils when it decomposes, becomes rancid, or becomes contaminated with microorganisms like bacteria or molds. Preservation guards against food-borne illnesses and protects the flavor, color, moisture content, or nutritive value of food. Food preservation also reduces food waste and loss, which can increase the efficiency of food systems and improve sustainability and food security.¹⁰ ​

There are different ways to prevent food from spoiling. Some are ancient methods that have been practiced for generations, such as boiling, curing, smoking, pickling, salting, fermenting, or canning. For many preserved foods, like jams, for example, several food preservation processes are used together. These methods work by killing the organisms that can spoil food and creating an environment around the food that does not allow contamination or decomposition. Other preservation approaches include the use of modern techniques and technology, including drying, vacuum packing, pasteurization, and freezing and refrigeration.

Another method of preservation is irradiation. This process involves treating food with ionizing radiation to kill the bacteria and parasites that cause toxicity and disease. Similar technology is used to sterilize surgical instruments to avoid infection. Foods currently approved for irradiation by the FDA include flour, fruits and vegetables, juices, herbs, spices, eggs, and meat and poultry. The FDA has evaluated the safety of irradiated food for more than 30 years and has found the process safe. The World Health Organization (WHO), the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) have also endorsed the safety of irradiated food.¹¹

Most forms of preservation can affect the quality and nutritional content of food, but some processes affect nutrients more than others. For example, freezing only slightly affects the nutritional content and often preserves the flavor and appearance of foods. Curing and smoking can introduce carcinogens or cancer-causing chemicals.¹² Salting greatly increases the sodium or salt content in foods. Food additives, discussed further below, can also introduce new chemicals to foods that may cause additional health concerns.

Food Processing

Food processing includes the methods and techniques used to transform raw ingredients into packaged food. According to the USDA, a processed food is any food that has been changed from its original state through washing, cleaning, milling, cutting, chopping, heating, pasteurizing, blanching, cooking, canning, freezing, drying, dehydrating, mixing, or packaging. Based on this definition, nearly everything you find in the grocery store is considered a processed food. In 2009, the FAO introduced the NOVA system for classifying processed foods¹³ (Table \(\PageIndex{1}\). Although this system is the most widely used globally, the USDA does not follow this classification system to classify processed foods.

Table \(\PageIndex{1}\). The NOVA Classification of Processed Foods¹³

 

Table displays the four categories of processed foods.

Category	Description
Group 1: Unprocessed or Minimally Processed Foods	Unprocessed foods are the edible parts of plants and animals that have not been altered. Minimally processed foods have slightly altered primarily for preservation. Examples include fresh or frozen fruits and vegetables, whole grains, nuts, and milk.
Group 2: Processed Culinary Ingredients	Food ingredients derived from Group 1 that are further processed by pressing, grinding, or refining. These foods are often used as ingredients to cook Group 1 foods. Examples include olive oil, flour, or honey.
Group 3: Processed Foods	Food products made Group 1 or 2 foods by adding sugar, salt, fat, or non-alcoholic fermentation. These include fresh-made breads, some cheeses, canned fruits or vegetables, or canned fish.
Group 4: Ultra-Processed Foods	Food products that have been made through industrial processes and include the addition of chemical additives beyond sugar, salt, or fats. They are typically ready-to-eat products designed to be appealing in flavor and appearance. Examples include pre-made pastas, pizzas, cakes, sugary drinks, breakfast cereals, instant soups, and most breads.

 

Source: Monteiro C.A. 2009. Nutrition and health. The issue is not food, nor nutrients, so much as processing. Public Health Nutrition, 12(5): 729-731. doi:10.1017/ S1368980009005291

Food processing has several important benefits, such as creating products with a much longer shelf life than raw foods. For example, frozen fruits and vegetables have a longer shelf life and retain much of their vitamins and nutrients. Also, food processing protects the health of the consumer from food spoilage, can improve the flavor and appearance of foods, and allows for easier shipment and the marketing of foods by corporations. However, there are certain drawbacks. Food processing can reduce the nutritional content of raw ingredients. For example, canning involves the use of heat, which destroys the vitamin C in canned fruit. Also, certain food additives included during processing, such as high fructose corn syrup, can affect consumers' health. Ultra-processed foods can contain almost 10 times more added sugars than minimally processed foods, and eating ultra-processed foods has been found to be associated with weight gain.^14-15

Food Additives

If you examine the label for a processed food product, it is not unusual to see a long list of added materials. These natural or synthetic substances are food additives that are chemicals added to foods to improve safety, texture, appearance, or flavor. People have been using food additives for thousands of years. Today, more than 3000 substances are used as food additives. Salt, sugar, and corn syrup are by far the most widely used additives in food in this country.¹⁶ Table \(\PageIndex{2}\) lists some common food additives and their uses.

Table \(\PageIndex{2}\). Common Food Additives

Table displays the common food additives and the reason for adding them.

Additive	Reason for Adding
Beta-carotene	Adds artificial coloring to food
Caffeine	Acts as a stimulant
Citric acid	Increases tartness to prevent food from becoming rancid
Dextrin	Thickens gravies, sauces, and baking mixes
Gelatin	Stabilizes, thickens, or texturizes food
Modified food starch	Keeps ingredients from separating and prevents lumps
MSG	Enhances flavor in a variety of foods
Pectin	Gives candies and jams a gel-like texture
Polysorbates	Blends oil and water and keep them from separating
Soy lecithin	Emulsifies and stabilizes chocolate, margarine, and other items
Sulfites	Prevent discoloration in dried fruits
Xanthan gum	Thickens, emulsifies, and stabilizes dairy products and dressings

Source: Center for Science in the Public Interest. Chemical Cuisine: Learn about Food Additives.¹⁷ ©2012. Center for Science in the Public Interest. http://www.cspinet.org/reports/chemcuisine.htm.

The Pros and Cons of Food Additives

The FDA and USDA work to protect the public from potentially dangerous additives. Passed in 1958, the Food Additives Amendment states that a manufacturer is responsible for demonstrating the safety of an additive before it can be approved. The Delaney Clause that was added to this legislation prohibits the approval of any additive found to cause cancer in animals or humans. However, most additives are considered to be “generally recognized as safe,” a status that is determined by the FDA and referred to as GRAS.

Food additives are typically included in the processing stage to improve the quality and consistency of a product. Additives are used to maintain or improve safety, freshness, nutritional value, taste, texture, and appearance. The increased production of prepared, processed, and convenience foods has made the use of food additives more prominent in recent years. Many additives also make items more “shelf stable,” meaning they will last a lot longer on store shelves and can generate more profit for store owners. Additives can also help to prevent spoilage that results from changes in temperature, damage during distribution, and other adverse conditions. In addition, food additives can protect consumers from exposure to rancid products and food-borne illnesses.

Food additives can also be used to boost their nutritional value. Enriched foods have nutrients added to restore those that were lost during processing. For example, iron and certain B vitamins are added to white flour to replace the nutrients that are removed in the process of milling wheat. Fortified foods have new nutrients added to enhance a food’s nutritive value. For example, folic acid is typically added to cereals and grain products, while calcium is added to some orange juice.

Certain enrichment and fortification processes have been instrumental in protecting public health. For example, adding iodine to salt has virtually eliminated iodine deficiencies, which protects against thyroid problems. Adding folic acid to wheat helps increase intake for pregnant women, which decreases the risk of neural tube defects in their children. Also, vegans or other people who do not consume many dairy products are able to drink orange juice or soy milk that has been fortified with calcium to meet the daily recommendations. However, there is some concern that foods of little nutritive value will be fortified in an effort to improve their allure, such as soft drinks with added vitamins.

Food additives aren’t always beneficial, however. For example, some food additives can cause allergic or hypersensitivity reactions. It is estimated that these reactions occur in 0.5% of the general population, with more likelihood in individuals who are allergic to other food components. Sulfites, used to preserve fruits and vegetables, can cause asthma attacks, heart rate fluctuations, and fever in some individuals. Monosodium glutamate (MSG) is a flavor enhancer that can cause headaches, hot flashes, numbness, and even fainting. Often, allergic reactions are more common when a large amount of the additive is ingested.¹⁸

Regulating Modern Food Systems: Bioengineered Foods

Another aspect of modern food systems that is regulated in the United States is the use of bioengineered or genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in foods. Bioengineered foods contain ingredients from plants or animals that have genetic material that could not be obtained through conventional breeding or found in nature and has been modified through certain laboratory techniques. For example, some plants have been engineered to produce a toxin found in bacteria. This toxin kills insects that eat the plants, thereby protecting the plants from the insect pest.¹⁹ Bioengineered crops are readily available in the United States. In 2020, GMO soybeans made up 94% of all soybeans planted, GMO cotton made up 96% of all cotton planted, and 92% of corn planted was GMO corn. Most GMO crops are used to feed animals like cows, chickens, and fish. They are also used to make ingredients that are then used in food products like cereal, snack chips, and vegetable oils. Even though you won’t find many GMO fruits or vegetables in the produce section of your grocery store, GMOs are a common part of today’s food supply.²⁰ The National Bioengineered Food Disclosure Law, passed by Congress in July of 2016, directed the USDA to establish a national mandatory standard for disclosing foods that may be bioengineered. Retail food products that are bioengineered or contain bioengineered ingredients will say so on the label (Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)).

Bioengineered Food Labels²¹

Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\): Bioengineered Food Labels. The USDA is responsible for ensuring foods with bioengineered ingredients are labeled for consumers. Image Source: https://www.ams.usda.gov/rules-regul...s/be/consumers

Certain modifications can be beneficial in resisting pests or pesticides, improving the ripening process, increasing the nutritional content of food, or providing resistance to common viruses. Although genetic engineering has improved productivity for farmers, it has also stirred up debate about consumer safety and environmental protection. Possible side effects related to the consumption of GM foods include an increase in allergenicity, or tendencies to provoke allergic reactions. There are also some concerns about the possible transfer of the genes used to create genetically engineered foods from plants to people. This could influence human health if antibiotic-resistant genes are transferred to the consumer. Therefore, the World Health Organization (WHO) and other groups have encouraged the use of genetic engineering without antibiotic-resistant genes. Genetically modified plants may adversely affect the environment as well and could lead to the contamination of non-genetically engineered organisms.²²

Genetically modified foods fall under the purview of the EPA, the USDA, and the FDA. Each agency has different responsibilities and concerns in the regulation of GM crops. The EPA ensures that pesticides used for GM plants are safe for the environment. The USDA makes sure genetically engineered seeds are safe for cultivation before planting. The FDA determines if foods made from GM plants are safe to eat. Although these agencies act independently, they work closely together, and many products are reviewed by all three.²⁰

Attributions

• Zimmerman, "An Introduction to Nutrition (Zimmerman)," CC BY-NC-SA 3.0. The original material was reorganized and updated. New video links and Table 1 were added. New references were added.

References

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