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4.3: Brain Anatomy

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    The brain is comprised of the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem. The cerebrum is the most prominent region of the brain. It is divided into left and right hemispheres. The hemispheres have many of the same functions. For example, each perceives touch on one side of the body, but some functions demonstrate laterality, meaning they are primarily controlled on one side of the brain.

    Most of what we think of when we imagine the brain is the cerebral cortex in humans. The cortex has many folds to increase the surface area of the brain. The bumps or raised ridges on the outer surface are called gyri (singular gyrus) and the grooved indentations are called sulci (singular sulcus). A large, deep sulcus is sometimes also called a fissure.

    Although each gyrus and sulcus has a name that either identifies its function or location, there are only three sulci that we will introduce here to help orient us around the neuroanatomical features of the cortex. The longitudinal fissure is the most obvious fissure in the brain. It divides the two hemispheres, running along the anterior–posterior axis, visible from a dorsal view of the brain. If you were to cut along the longitudinal fissure completely, you would get two symmetrical portions of brain: the left and right hemispheres.

    The central sulcus is a large fissure that starts at the dorsal part of the brain at about the halfway point on the anterior–posterior axis. In a sagittal view, the central sulcus runs ventrally about half the length of the brain. The other groove worth noting is the lateral fissure. This one runs roughly along the anterior-to-posterior direction, and curves gently dorsally. Again, in a sagittal view, it is roughly seen in the middle third of the brain in the anterior–posterior axis.

    Illustration of the brain. Details in caption.
    Figure 23.1 An external side view of the parts of the brain. The cerebrum, the largest part of the brain, is organized into folds called gyri and grooves called sulci. The cerebellum sits behind (posterior) and below (inferior) the cerebrum. The brainstem connects the brain with the spinal cord and exits from the ventral side of the brain. ‘External Brain Regions’ by Casey Henley is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial Share-Alike (CC BY-NC-SA) 4.0 International License.

    Anatomical Lobes of the Cortex

    The cortex is roughly divided into four major lobes, which are named after the bones of the skull that surround each section of brain. The lobes are paired, meaning that the whole brain contains two of each, a left and a right. In general, the structures are roughly symmetrical.

    Frontal Lobes

    The frontal lobes are the most rostral, located in the front of the brain. The posterior border of the frontal lobe is the central sulcus. Among mammals, it is the largest of the four lobes. The frontal lobes are responsible for higher level executive functions like attention, critical thinking, and impulse control. The frontal lobes allows us to do mental math, to hold a string of letters in our head to be repeated backward, and to suppress socially unacceptable actions. Our personality is influenced by the frontal lobe. An injury to these brain structures can result in a radical change in a person’s behavior.

    They are the last brain region to fully develop, not completing development until individuals reach their mid 20s. The frontal lobes are also the location of the primary motor cortex, the region of the brain responsible for planning and executing movement. Specifically, the primary motor cortex is located in the precentral gyrus, which is directly anterior to the central sulcus.

    Illustration of the brain showing the frontal lobe. Details in text.
    Figure 23.2. The frontal lobe is located in the front of the brain. It includes the precentral gyrus, the location of the primary motor cortex. ‘Frontal Lobe’ by Casey Henley is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial Share-Alike (CC BY-NC-SA) 4.0 International License.

    View the frontal lobe using the BrainFacts.org 3D Brain

    Phineas Gage

    Phineas Gage, who was mentioned back in Chapter 1, is one of the most famous case studies in neuroscience.

    The mid-1800s saw an expansion of industry in the United States. The most reliable and quickest way to move goods and people was with the railways that were starting to zig-zag across the growing country. The factor slowing down railway expansion was terrain: land had to be relatively flat for the tracks to be laid down. Terraforming mountains was a dangerous ordeal, and in the years before TNT (a relatively safe explosive) was developed, work accidents were a risk that these demolition workers faced.

    Phineas Gage was one of those workers. In the green mountain hills of Vermont, Gage was putting explosive powder into a crack in a mountain to clear land for a new railway. As Gage packed the explosive using a three-foot-long metal rod, a spark accidentally ignited the blast prematurely, causing the tamping iron to rocket cleanly through Gage’s skull. Miraculously, Gage survived the blast. Within a month, he had made an almost complete recovery. Gage was talking excitedly with his doctors, he was eating voraciously, and even reported experiencing no pain. While the doctors noticed that his entire frontal lobe had been destroyed, it was his friends who noticed the dramatic change in his personality: whereas he was once a friendly man, adored and respected by his coworkers, the new Gage was irreverent, generally unlikable, and prone to using profanity at the most inappropriate times. The pre-injury Gage was a shrewd businessman who followed through with his plans, but Gage now was unreliable and at times, acted in a more like an animal. Because of the injuries to his frontal lobe, his friends described him as being “no longer Gage”.

    HM-wide-new-e1652899670383-1024x805.png
    Figure 23.3. Image of Phineas Gage and his site of injury. The figure on the left is an image of Phineas Gage holding the iron rod that caused his injury. The image on the right shows a Magnetic Resonance Image rendering of the location of the rod in the injury. The rod entered below the left eye and damaged much of the left frontal cortex.

    Parietal Lobes

    The central sulcus lies caudal to the frontal lobe and divides the frontal lobes from the parietal lobes. The primary somatosensory cortex is located in the postcentral gyrus of the parietal lobe and is responsible for the perception of touch and pain. With our skin, we are able to detect light touch, temperature, pain, vibration, and many other modalities. This ability to sense different tactile properties of things in the world around us with our body is one of the major functions of the parietal lobe. Another closely related sense, proprioception (the ability to identify where parts of your body are located), is also processed by neurons of the parietal lobe. The parietal lobes also perform higher-level visual processing.

    Illustration of the brain showing the parietal lobe. Details in text.
    Figure 23.4. The parietal lobe is located on the top of the brain. It includes the postcentral gyrus, the location of the primary somatosensory cortex. The central sulcus divides the parietal lobe from the frontal lobe. ‘Parietal Lobe’ by Casey Henley is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial Share-Alike (CC BY-NC-SA) 4.0 International License.

    View the parietal lobe using the BrainFacts.org 3D Brain

    Temporal Lobes

    The temporal lobes are located on the side of the brain, separated from the frontal and parietal lobes by the lateral fissure. Like the parietal lobe, the temporal lobe plays a role in sensory processing, specifically with hearing, smell, taste, and higher-level visual processing. The auditory system allows our brain to interpret sound waves. The ability to remember important facts depends on memory-related processes. These functions are carried out in part by a brain structure called the hippocampus, which is buried medially and ventrally in the temporal lobe. The temporal lobe also houses some structures that are important for language.

    Illustration of the brain showing the temporal lobe. Details in text.
    Figure 23.5. The temporal lobe is located on the side of the brain. The lateral fissure divides the temporal lobe from the frontal and parietal lobes. ‘Temporal Lobe’ by Casey Henley is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial Share-Alike (CC BY-NC-SA) 4.0 International License.

    View the temporal lobe using the BrainFacts.org 3D Brain

    Occipital Lobes

    The occipital lobes, the most caudal lobes, are located in the back of the brain. Anatomically, there is not an obvious border that separates the occipital lobe from adjacent areas of the cortex. The occipital lobe is the smallest of the four lobes. The main function of the occipital lobe is for processing of visual stimuli. Our eyes are capable of capturing light and converting that light into signals. The primary visual cortex of the occipital lobe, also called V1, interprets those signals into a representation of the visual world. Other vision-related stimuli, such as objects in motion, object orientation, and color are also processed by neurons in the occipital lobe.

    Illustration of the brain showing the occiptial lobe. Details in text.
    Figure 23.6. The occipital lobe is located in the back of the brain. ‘Occipital Lobe’ by Casey Henley is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial Share-Alike (CC BY-NC-SA) 4.0 International License.

    View the occipital lobe using the BrainFacts.org 3D Brain

    Non-Cerebral Components

    The cerebellum lies inferior to the occipital lobes. The cerebellum is divided into two hemispheres like the cerebral cortex. The cerebellum is best known for its role in regulation and control of movement, but it is also involved in cognitive functions like emotions.

    The brainstem is located between the cerebrum and the spinal cord. It is important for regulating critical functions like heart rate, breathing, and sleep. It is also the location of most of the cranial nerves.

    The spinal cord, which is part of the central nervous system but not part of the brain, is responsible for receiving sensory information from the body and sending motor information to the body. Involuntary motor reflexes are also a function of the spinal cord, indicating that the spinal cord can process information independently from the brain.

    Illustration of the brain showing the cerebellum, brainstem, and spinal cord. Details in text.
    Figure 23.7. The cerebellum, brainstem, and spinal cord are located below the brain. ‘Hindbrain’ by Casey Henley is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial Share-Alike (CC BY-NC-SA) 4.0 International License.

    View the brainstem using the BrainFacts.org 3D Brain

    View the cerebellum using the BrainFacts.org 3D Brain

    Dorsal View

    Viewing the brain from above shows the bilateral symmetry of the left and right cerebral hemispheres, which are separated by the longitudinal fissure. The frontal, parietal, and occipital lobes can be seen. Similar to the lateral view, the central sulcus divides the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe. The precentral gyrus—which is the location of the primary motor cortex—sits rostral to the central sulcus, whereas the postcentral gyrus—which is the location of the primary somatosensory cortex—lies caudal to the central sulcus.

    Illustration of the dorsal surface of the brain. Details in text and caption.
    Figure 23.8. The dorsal view of the brain. The left and right cerebral hemispheres are separated by the longitudinal fissure. Three of the four lobes (the frontal, parietal, and occipital) can be seen in this view. ‘Dorsal Surface of Brain’ by Casey Henley is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial Share-Alike (CC BY-NC-SA) 4.0 International License.

    Ventral View

    Underneath the brain, the frontal and temporal lobes are visible, as is the cerebellum. Like the dorsal view, the longitudinal fissure divides the cerebrum into right and left hemispheres. The pons and medulla (components of the brain stem) connect the cerebrum to the spinal cord.

    Illustration of the ventral surface of the brain. Details in text and caption.
    Fig 23.9. Ventral Surface of the Brain. The frontal lobe, temporal lobe, cerebellum, pons, medulla, spinal cord, and longitudinal fissure can be seen when viewing the bottom of the brain. “Ventral Surface of the Brain” by Casey Henley is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial Share-Alike (CC BY-NC-SA) 4.0 International License.

    Cranial nerves are also visible on the ventral surface of the brain. The olfactory tract leads out to the olfactory bulb, which connects to the olfactory nerve. The optic tract crosses the midline at the optic chiasm, and then the optic nerve projects to the retina. Other cranial nerves enter or leave the brain at the level of the brainstem. The hypothalamus is located caudal to the pons and the mammillary bodies project out from the hypothalamus.

    Illustration of the nerves and hypothalamus on the ventral surface of the brain. Details in text and caption.
    Figure 23.10. Cranial nerves, optic chiasm, and olfactory tract are visible on the bottom of the brain. In the center, the hypothalamus and mammillary bodies can also be seen. “Ventral Surface Cranial Nerves” by Casey Henley is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial Share-Alike (CC BY-NC-SA) 4.0 International License.

    There are twelve pairs of cranial nerves that are outlined in the table below.

    Table 23.1. A table that defines each of the twelve cranial nerves by identifying their name, the type of nerve, and function.
    Cranial Nerve Type of Nerve Function
    CN I Olfactory nerve Sensory Sense of smell
    CN II Optic nerve Sensory Sense of vision
    CN III Oculomotor nerve Motor Control of extraocular muscles that allow movement of eyeballs; constriction of pupils; changing of lens shape
    CN IV Trochlear nerve Motor Control of the superior oblique muscle of the eye that moves the eyeball down and lateral
    CN V Trigeminal nerve Sensory + Motor Tactile and pain sensory information from the face and mouth; Control of muscles used in chewing
    CN VI Abducens nerve Motor Control of the lateral rectus muscle of the eye that moves the eyeball outward laterally
    CN VII Facial nerve Sensory + Motor Control of the muscles that allow for facial expressions; Taste sensation on the anterior two thirds of the tongue
    CN VIII Vestibulocochlear nerve Sensory Detection of sound information and head positional (vestibular) information
    CN IX Glossopharyngeal nerve Sensory + Motor Detection of somatic sensory in the middle ear and posterior third of the tongue; Taste sensation on the posterior third of the tongue; Controls the stylopharyngeal muscle that allows swallowing
    CN X Vagus nerve Sensory + Motor Control of the internal organs by autonomic nervous system using parasympathetic activity
    CN XI Accessory nerve Motor Control of the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles of the neck and shoulders
    CN XII Hypoglossal nerve Motor Control of the muscles of the tongue

    Mid-Sagittal View

    A mid-sagittal section slices the brain through the longitudinal fissure and separates the right hemisphere from the left. It also reveals more structures. In a mid-sagittal view, all four cortical lobes are visible. The frontal lobe is separated from the parietal lobe by the central sulcus, the occipital lobe is in the posterior region of the brain, and the temporal lobe can be seen behind the brainstem. The cerebellum, pons, medulla, and spinal cord are seen caudal to the cerebrum, but in this view, the midbrain—which is made up of two regions: the tegmentum and tectum—is also visible superior to the pons. The corpus callosum is located in the center of the cerebrum and is a white matter bundle made up of axons crossing from one hemisphere to the other. Surrounding the corpus callosum is the cingulate gyrus, a region important for emotion.

    Illustration of the internal anatomy of the cerebrum and brainstem. Details in caption.
    Figure 23.11. A midsagittal section of the brain. All four cerebral lobes are visible, as in the cingulate gyrus, which extends through the medial aspects of the frontal and parietal lobes. The corpus callosum sits beneath the cingulate gyrus. Below the cerebrum lies the midbrain, pons, medulla, and cerebellum. ‘Internal Brain Regions’ by Casey Henley is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial Share-Alike (CC BY-NC-SA) 4.0 International License.

    The diencephalon region of the brain consists of the region around the thalamus and hypothalamus. It is located inferior to the fornix and lateral ventricle, posterior to the anterior commissure, and superior to the brainstem. The fornix is a nerve fiber bundle containing primarily output from the hippocampus. The anterior commissure sits above the hypothalamus and is a white matter tract (like the corpus callosum) that allows information to cross from one hemisphere to the other. The thalamus is best known for its role as a relay and processing location for the sensory and motor systems. The hypothalamus has a variety of functions including control of stress and the “fight or flight” response of the autonomic nervous system, reproduction, sleep, thirst, hunger, and other homeostatic functions. The mamillary bodies sit in the posterior part of the hypothalamus and are important for memory. The optic nerves from the retina cross at the optic chiasm and then the optic tracts continue back into the diencephalon.

    In the brainstem, the tectum of the midbrain consists of the superior and inferior colliculi, which are important for vision and hearing, respectively. Finally, the reticular formation is located throughout the brainstem. Networks within the reticular formation are important for regulating sleep and consciousness, pain, and motor control.

    Regions of the diencephalon and brainstem. Details in text and captions.
    Figure 23.12. Regions of the diencephalon and brainstem in a midsagittal section. The thalamus, hypothalamus, and mammillary bodies are part of the diencephalon. The optic tracts leave the diencephalon, cross at the optic chiasm, and continue as the optic nerves out to the retina. The anterior commissure and fornix create the front and upper border of the diencephalon. The superior and inferior colliculi are part of the midbrain tectum, and the reticular formation is located throughout the brainstem. ‘Midsagittal Diencephaon and Brainstem’ by Casey Henley is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial Share-Alike (CC BY-NC-SA) 4.0 International License.

    Coronal Section View

    Coronal sections of the brain allow deep tissue structures to be visible. A cut through the anterior portion of the temporal lobe shows the amygdala, a region important for emotion, located in the medial temporal lobe. The regions of the basal ganglia are also visible: the striatum (which consists of the caudate and the putamen) and the globus pallidus. The basal ganglia has multiple functions, but is best known for its role in regulation of movement. The lateral ventricle sits medial to the basal ganglia and below the corpus callosum. The third ventricle is located in the middle of the brain, inferior to the lateral ventricle. The longitudinal fissure separates the left and right cerebral hemispheres and the lateral sulcus is the border between the frontal and temporal lobes.

    Coronal view of the amygdala and basal ganglia. Details in text and captions.
    Figure 23.13 A coronal section at the location of the amygdala. The amygdala is located in the temporal lobe, and the basal ganglia is a subcortical structure located near the lateral ventricle. The corpus callosum, third ventricle, longitudinal fissure, and lateral sulcus can also be seen. ‘Amygdala and Basal Ganglia’ by Casey Henley is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial Share-Alike (CC BY-NC-SA) 4.0 International License.

    A coronal section taken closer to the central sulcus will make the hippocampus visible. The hippocampus is known for its role in memory and spatial awareness. At this location, the basal ganglia is more defined; the caudate and putamen are still present, but the two separate regions of the globus pallidus (the internal and external segments) can be seen, as well as the subthalamic nucleus and the substantia nigra. The thalamus is located on either side of the third ventricle. The corpus callosum is superior to the lateral ventricle. The cerebrum is divided in half by the longitudinal fissure and the lateral sulcus separates the temporal lobe from the frontal and parietal lobes.

    Coronal view of the hippocampus and basal ganglia. Details in text and captions.
    Figure 23.14. A coronal section at the location of the hippocampus. The hippocampus is located in the temporal lobe, and the basal ganglia is a subcortical structure located lateral to the thalamus and lateral ventricle. ‘Hippocampus and Basal Ganglia’ by Casey Henley is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial Share-Alike (CC BY-NC-SA) 4.0 International License.

    Key Takeaways

    • The four lobes of the cerebral cortex each have specific functions
    • The cerebral cortex has gyri and sulci to increase the surface area
    • The cerebral cortex, underlying structures, cerebellum, brainstem, and spinal cord form the central nervous system
    • Cranial nerves are visible on the ventral surface of the brain

    Test Yourself!

    An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
    https://openbooks.lib.msu.edu/introneuroscience1/?p=139#h5p-31

    Attributions

    Portions of this chapter were remixed and revised from the following sources:

    1. Foundations of Neuroscience by Casey Henley. The original work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License
    2. Open Neuroscience Initiative by Austin Lim. The original work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.

    Media Attributions


    4.3: Brain Anatomy is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.

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